Islam

The symbol of Islam, the Star and Crescent, atop a Masjid in Paris

Islam is a false religion that originated in the city of Mecca in the 7th century. A monotheistic faith, it was founded as an amalgamation of the various heresies, non-Christian religions and pagan customs which were prevalent in Arabia during that time. These diverse beliefs were syncretised by the religion's founder and a self-proclaimed prophet, Muhammed.

Followers of Islam, known as Muslims, revere Muhammed as the final prophet in a line of messengers including figures such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. Islam teaches the worship of one God, referred to in Arabic as Allah, and emphasizes submission to God's will, as conveyed in its holy book, the Quran, which they believe is the direct speech of Allah, memorised by Muhammed and written by his later followers after his death in 632 CE.

Muslims believe that after death, all people will either go to heaven or to hell. Salvation from hell is based off a system of works. Central to this system are the Five Pillars of Islam, which form the foundation of Islamic rituals and practices:

1. Shahada (Faith): The declaration of faith and the Islamic Creed, which states: "There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is His messenger."
2. Salat (Prayer): Muslims are required to perform five ritual prayers facing the Kaaba in Mecca every day. These prayers are a direct link between the worshiper and Allah and involve specific physical and verbal expressions of devotion.
3. Zakat (Charity): A mandatory giving of a portion of one’s wealth to those in need, reflecting Islam’s emphasis on social responsibility and compassion.
4. Sawm (Fasting): Observing a fast from dawn until sunset during the holy month of Ramadan, which is a time of asceticism, spiritual reflection, and prayer.
5. Hajj (Pilgrimage): A once-in-a-lifetime pilgrimage to Mecca, if physically and financially able, to participate in rituals that commemorate the faith of Abraham and the unity of the Muslim community.]

History

Arabic religion in the 7th century

In the 7th century, Arabia was a centre of diverse religious expression. The dominant religious tradition was the various forms of Arabic paganism among the various tribes. This form of paganism was polytheistic, centred around the worship of multiple deities and spirits, often associated with natural phenomena, celestial bodies, and tribal identities. Sacred sites, such as the Kaaba in Mecca, housed numerous idols and served as pilgrimage destinations for various tribal groups.

At the time, several Abrahamic religious professions had emigrated into the region from the north, including Christianity, Judaism, and Manicheaism. These traditions coexisted alongside the dominant pagan practices and were particularly present in regions influenced by trade routes and migrations. Christianity was practiced by various Arab tribes, especially in areas such as Najran and among the Ghassanid kingdom. Jewish communities were well-established in cities like Medina, while Manicheaism, though less widespread, had a presence due to its syncretic appeal and connections with Persian culture.

The Christianity practiced in 7th-century Arabia differed significantly from orthodox Christianity as defined by the ecumenical councils (e.g., Nicaea in 325 and Chalcedon in 451). These differences were due to the isolation of Arabian Christian communities, the influence of heterodox sects, and the absence of centralised theological authority in the region. The form of Christianity most prevalent in Arabia was shaped by a variety of non-orthodox traditions, including Jewish Christian groups like the Ebionites, as well as sects influenced by Gnostic and Monophysite teachings.

As a result, the Christianity which developed in 7th-century Arabia was often indistinguishable from other religious traditions such as Judaism, Manichaeism, and Gnosticism in its emphasis on ritual and legalistic practices. These faiths were seen as emphasizing outward adherence to laws, like the Law of Moses, or mystical rites rather than a cohesive message of salvation through grace, as articulated in orthodox Christian theology.

"For by grace you have been saved through faith. And this is not your own doing; it is the gift of God, not a result of works, so that no one may boast." - , a verse many so-called Christians in Arabia at that time had forsaken.

Muhammed's solution

17th century Turkish depiction of Muhammed

Muhammed was born around the year 570 to the chief of the Arabic Quraysh tribe, his father died around the time of his birth. His mother, Amina, died when he was six, leaving him orphaned. He was raised under the care of his grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, and his uncle. Because of this difficult upbringing, he would periodically seclude himself in a mountain cave named Hira.

It is certain that Muhammed felt isolated and bitter towards the various religious customs in his hometown and eventually, he would begin to claim that he was receiving visions and hearing voices from God and from angels. In his first vision, the Angel Gabriel appeared to him commanding him to "Read" or "Recite" (the Arabic word "Iqra" can mean both). Muhammed, unable to read or write, was initially confused and terrified by the experience and refused, saying "I am not a reciter". According to Islamic tradition, the angel then responded by squeezing Muhammed so tightly that he felt as though his soul was being squeezed from his body, forcing him to submit to the command. This violent act of pressing is seen as an attempt to compel Muhammed to accept the message and to prepare him for the subsequent revelations which he would continue to memorise.

In 613, Muhammed started preaching these revelations publicly, proclaiming that 'God is One' and that he was a prophet and messenger of God, similar to the other prophets in Islam. Muhammed's followers were initially few in number, and experienced persecution by Meccan polytheists for 13 years. To escape ongoing persecution, he sent some of his followers to Abyssinia in 615, before he and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina later in 622. This event, the Hijrah, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. In Medina, Muhammed united the tribes under the Constitution of Medina. In December 629, after eight years of intermittent fighting with Meccan tribes, Muhammed gathered an army of 10,000 Muslim converts and marched on the city of Mecca, capturing it uncontested.

Muhammed, now recognized as the political and spiritual leader of a unified Muslim community, instituted key changes to the city, including the destruction of the idols housed in the Kaaba, symbolizing the shift from polytheism to monotheism under Islam. The Kaaba was then re-dedicated as a place of worship for Allah alone.

The Islamic Conquests (622 - 750 CE)

The Early Conquests of the Islamic Caliphates

The period following the Hijrah (622 CE) marks the beginning of the Early Islamic conquests, a series of military campaigns that saw the expansion of Islam from the Arabian Peninsula into vast territories across the Middle East, North Africa, and beyond. Under the leadership of Muhammed and his immediate successors, the Rashidun Caliphs, Islam spread rapidly and transformed the political and religious landscape of the region.

Following Muhammed's death in 632 CE, his successors continued the expansion of the Islamic state. The first caliph, Abu Bakr, solidified control over Arabia, while the subsequent caliphs, Umar, Uthman, and Ali, oversaw rapid military campaigns that expanded the Islamic empire into the Byzantine and Sasanian empires, which included modern-day Syria, Iraq, Egypt, and parts of North Africa. These conquests were largely successful due to the unification of the Arabian tribes under Islam, the strength of the Muslim army, and the political and social organization provided by Muhammed’s strictly legalistic teachings.

By 750 CE, the Islamic empire had grown vast, stretching from the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Indus River in the east. The Umayyad Caliphate, which succeeded the Rashidun, expanded the empire to its greatest territorial extent. However, the rapid expansion also led to internal divisions, eventually resulting in the Abbasid Revolution of 750 CE, which overthrew the Umayyads and shifted the capital of the caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad.

All this was watched in horror by contemporary Christians, who saw the Islamic conquests as a brutal campaign of bigotry and the Islamic laws as a regressive return to legalism, which discarded the fulfilment of the law brought by Christ.

The decline of Islam (750 - 1945 CE)

The decline of Islam, particularly the political and military power of Islamic empires, began with the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate in 750 CE and the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate. While the Abbasids initially brought a golden age of intellectual and cultural flourishing, the empire soon began to weaken. The caliphs’ political power diminished as regional governors and military leaders grew more autonomous. The Abbasid Caliphate faced internal fragmentation due to sectarianism, economic instability, and external invasions, such as the Mongol conquest of Baghdad in 1258, which marked the end of the Abbasid caliphate’s dominance. While Islam itself remained a dominant force in the Middle East and beyond, the political unity that once held the Islamic world together eroded over time.

From the 11th to the 16th centuries, the rise of the Ottoman Empire seemed to restore some degree of unity and power to the Islamic world. However, even the Ottomans, who controlled vast regions of Europe, Asia, and Africa, faced challenges that would lead to their eventual decline. By the 19th century, European imperialism and colonialism had significantly weakened the Ottoman Empire. European powers, such as Britain and France, encroached on territories once controlled by Islamic empires, and the Ottomans, unable to defend their borders, became the "sick man of Europe." The empire's internal divisions, economic issues, and the rising influence of nationalism further hastened its downfall, culminating in its collapse after World War I.

By the early 20th century, the decline of Islam as a political force was marked by the rise of secularism, nationalism, and Western imperialism. The Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916), which divided Ottoman territories between the British and French, exemplified the disintegration of the Islamic world into smaller, often Western-controlled nation-states. The legacy of colonialism left many Arab and Muslim countries with unstable political systems, economic dependency, and cultural tensions. In the face of Western dominance and the secularization of governments, many Islamic nations struggled to preserve their identity and power. The decline of Islamic political unity in the 20th century marked a period of profound transformation, as Muslim societies grappled with modernity, colonial legacies, and the changing global order.

Islam today

British Muslims praying in a Masjid in London

Modern Islam in the Middle East is shaped by a mix of religious, political, and cultural factors. Despite movements for political freedom like the Arab Spring, many countries remain under authoritarian rule where Islamic law, especially Sharia, plays a central role. While some countries, like Saudi Arabia, maintain strict interpretations of Islam, others like the Gulf states balance tradition with modernisation. T

In the West, dawah, or Islamic evangelism, has gained momentum with the growing Muslim populations through immigration and conversion. Islamic organizations and media are using platforms to educate both Muslims and non-Muslims about Islam, addressing misconceptions and promoting interfaith dialogue. Social media has become a powerful tool for dawah, helping Muslims share their faith and values, fostering a deeper understanding of Islam in predominantly secular societies.

Since the 1990s, Islamic extremism has emerged as a global threat, with groups like Al-Qaeda and ISIS promoting violent interpretations of Islam. The 9/11 attacks brought extremism to the forefront, leading to the War on Terror. These groups seek to establish Islamic rule through violence, but most Muslims reject their radical views.

Influences

Early Islam was understood amongst it's early Arab converts by a desire for national exceptionalism for the Arabic peoples. The religion’s founders sought to establish the Arab identity as distinct and divinely favoured, much in the same way the Pharisees in Judaism emphasized the special status of the Israelites. A key part of this identity was the claim that the lineage of the Arabs, through Abraham’s son Ishmael, validated their religious and cultural superiority. According to the Bible, Abraham’s other son Isaac was the ancestor of the Israelites, while Ishmael became the forefather of the Arab nations, and this was used to assert a unique, divinely ordained mission for the Arab people.

The concept of Ishmael's lineage was critical to early Islamic teachings and served as a foundation for the legitimacy of the Muslim faith. This theological focus on Ishmael's connection to Abraham allowed early Muslims to position themselves as the true heirs to the Abrahamic legacy, with their faith as a continuation of God's covenant with humanity. The significance of Ishmael as the chosen son, and the Arabs as his descendants, framed the early Islamic movement as not only religious but also nationalistic, with divine favour being central to their identity and purpose.

The religion of Muhammed was formed around this view, but was often shaped by the numerous legends, myths and theological concepts he had seen being taught by local religious authorities as well as travelling missionaries for foreign faiths. As Muhammed's power over Medina grew, he would often invite these people to teach him their beliefs, after which he would integrate them into the Quran. This earned him the nickname of "the Ear" as he would listen to anyone who would spin him a legend or a myth (see Surah 9:61).

After his death and the completion of the Quran, Islam continued to evolve, particularly as it sought to establish a unified identity and set of practices for its rapidly growing community. The early Islamic community was not only concerned with doctrinal teachings but also with how to structure the day-to-day life of its followers. This is where the development of the Sunnah, the practices and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad, became crucial.

Contrary to the Islamic view, the Sunnah, as a set of practices to be followed by Muslims, was not immediately evident in the early years of Islam. Instead, the Sunnah emerged gradually as a response to the need for an authoritative guide for the conduct of the Muslim community after Muhammed's death. Initially, there were various interpretations of Muhammed’s teachings, and different groups within the early Muslim community had competing understandings of what constituted the right practice of Islam. It was in this context that the Sunnah was constructed, largely through the work of scholars and Hadith compilers who sought to preserve and standardise Muhammed’s teachings.

All of this, the theological environment of Muhammed's upbringing and the absorption of local rituals and practices discovered during the Early Islamic conquests into the Sunnah, allowed for many foreign religious ideas to be brought into the Islamic concept of morality.