The Dorean Principle (book): Difference between revisions

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=== Rejection of Reciprocity ===

In 1 Corinthians 9 and 2 Corinthians 11, Paul explains that he refuses to preach for pay. He lists a variety of reasons why he does this, but these reasons may not overturn the simple what of his actions. In both of these passages, the apostle provides a direct description of his policy: to ''preach the gospel free of charge''.<blockquote>''What then is my reward? That in my preaching I may present the gospel free of charge, so as not to make full use of my right in the gospel.'' (1 Cor. 9:18)

''Or did I commit a sin in humbling myself so that you might be exalted, because I preached God’s gospel to you free of charge?'' (2 Cor. 11:7)</blockquote>Simply stated, Paul rejects reciprocity, all that is offered in direct exchange for his work of ministry.

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# More precisely, Paul alternates between two root words in Greek—''narkao'' and ''bareo''—to communicate the notion of "burden".

# Paul says he robbed ~~"churches"~~ () but that only Philippi supported him (). It is possible there may have been multiple ~~churches~~ in Philippi. See Briones, ''Paul’s Financial Policy''.

# Paul says he robbed “churches” (2 Cor. 11:8) but that only Philippi supported him (Phil. 4:15). It is possible there may have been multiple churches in Philippi. See Briones, D. E. (2013). ''Paul’s Financial Policy: A Socio-Theological Approach''. Bloomsbury T&T Clark.

# So Verbrugge and Krell, ''Paul and Money'', 71

# Theissen, Fortress Introduction to the New Testament, 75.

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<blockquote>For if I do this of my own will, I have a reward, but if not of my own will, I am still entrusted with a stewardship. What then is my reward? That in my preaching I may present the gospel free of charge, so as not to make full use of my right in the gospel. (1 Cor. 9:17-18)</blockquote>

Surprisingly, Paul’s activity and reward are identical: to preach the gospel free of charge. The idea is not that the apostle, by refusing money, accrues merit with which he will receive a reward. Instead, by refusing money he enjoys the reward itself—the stewardship he executes, Christ working through him. Given the preceding context of boasting (1 Cor. 9:15-16), we should not distinguish Paul’s boasting from his reward. In the words of one commentator, they "refer to the same reality."⁠1 In either the framework of boasting or that of reward, Paul stands to gain from preaching free of charge because then Christ may be seen working through him.

Surprisingly, Paul’s activity and reward are identical: to preach the gospel free of charge. The idea is not that the apostle, by refusing money, accrues merit with which he will receive a reward. Instead, by refusing money he enjoys the reward itself—the stewardship he executes, Christ working through him. Given the preceding context of boasting (1 Cor. 9:15-16), we should not distinguish Paul’s boasting from his reward. In the words of one commentator, they "refer to the same reality."⁠[1] In either the framework of boasting or that of reward, Paul stands to gain from preaching free of charge because then Christ may be seen working through him.

In contrast, if Paul were to receive payment, his reward would be the payment itself. He would operate as a voluntary laborer setting his own fees, so he would no longer function as a servant bound by his master (cf. John 7:18). Thus, accepting financial reward would forfeit the greater reward: godly stewardship. This recalls the teaching of Christ in the Sermon on the Mount.

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Furthermore, rather than stirring up goodwill through offering the gospel free of charge, we learn in 2 Corinthians that Paul only stirred up tension as those with more financially glorious ministries turned the people away to different teaching (2 Cor. 11:7). Between a free gospel and one offered at a price, the Corinthians, who so valued wealth and status in their leaders, found the latter more enticing!

While many have read 1 Corinthians 9 to speak of Paul’s contextualizing of the gospel, something more specific is at play: Each of these phrases of accommodation represents some act of humility.⁠2 Though already a Jew, the apostle voluntarily became a Jew under the judgment of the law by receiving thirty-nine lashes (2 Cor. 11:24). He became as one without the law, renouncing all of his own merit based on law-keeping (Gal. 4:12). He became weak by enduring the hardships and humiliations of ministry (2 Cor. 12:9). These "accommodations" impress no one, yet are necessary for the gospel to go forward.

While many have read 1 Corinthians 9 to speak of Paul’s contextualizing of the gospel, something more specific is at play: Each of these phrases of accommodation represents some act of humility.⁠[2] Though already a Jew, the apostle voluntarily became a Jew under the judgment of the law by receiving thirty-nine lashes (2 Cor. 11:24). He became as one without the law, renouncing all of his own merit based on law-keeping (Gal. 4:12). He became weak by enduring the hardships and humiliations of ministry (2 Cor. 12:9). These "accommodations" impress no one, yet are necessary for the gospel to go forward.

The key to all of this may be found in v. 19. Paul does not imitate all but rather humbles himself in order to serve all. As a servant of Christ, Paul must also be a servant to those to whom he is sent (2 Cor. 4:5; cf. 2 Cor. 1:24). He does not generally act like a Jew for Jews, or a Gentile for Gentiles, or a weak person for the weak, but he is a servant to all in every circumstance by humbling himself so that the truth of the gospel may be properly acknowledged. We should not be misguided by the apostle’s clever rhetorical device, imagining that he would become popular for the popular, strong for the strong, or rich for the rich.

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=== Conclusion ===

The duty of servanthood demands the dorean principle. As a servant, Paul must reject ministerial reciprocity, and he must accept ministerial colabor. In the next chapter, we will look at Paul’s motivations through an additional lens: his sincerity.

# Fee, ''The First Epistle to the Corinthians'', 421.

# See David E. Garland’s commentary for further demonstrations that each of these phrases represents an act of humility. Garland, ''1 Corinthians'', 427-437.

== 6. The Sincerity of Ministry ==

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Sincerity propels the dorean principle. That is, ''dorean ministry is sincere ministry''. In the next chapter, we will see that the Bible identifies all non-dorean ministry as insincere, the work of false teachers.

# See Hooker, “A Partner in the Gospel,” 87; Schutz, ''Paul and the Anatomy of Apostolic Authority'', 53.

# Orr and Walther, ''1 Corinthians'', 243.

== 7. The Greed of Wolves ==

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Do not mistake the ethical transgression for a misunderstanding about the mechanics of impartation. Explicitly, Peter rebukes Simon because he thought the gift of God ''could'' be obtained by money. Implicitly, the apostle rebukes the magician because he thought the gift of God ''ought'' to be given for money. Simon treats Peter as a minister for profit and sets himself up to potentially become one as well, doling out this power to others who have the coin to spare.

By virtue of its narrative form, this passage centers around the particulars of one individual, Simon. However, the prominence of this event in the fledgling church signifies the divine delivery of a generalized principle. It is not merely ''impossible'' to facilitate the distribution of the gift of the Holy Spirit by means of financial exchange; it is ''dishonorable'' to make any such attempt. Broadly speaking, any ministry—miraculous or non-miraculous—constitutes an attempt to impart the blessing of the Holy Spirit. In this light, the passage condemns all ministerial reciprocity. In the words of D. A. Carson, "Those who charge for spiritual ministry are dabbling in simony."⁠1

By virtue of its narrative form, this passage centers around the particulars of one individual, Simon. However, the prominence of this event in the fledgling church signifies the divine delivery of a generalized principle. It is not merely ''impossible'' to facilitate the distribution of the gift of the Holy Spirit by means of financial exchange; it is ''dishonorable'' to make any such attempt. Broadly speaking, any ministry—miraculous or non-miraculous—constitutes an attempt to impart the blessing of the Holy Spirit. In this light, the passage condemns all ministerial reciprocity. In the words of D. A. Carson, "Those who charge for spiritual ministry are dabbling in simony."⁠12]

=== The Balaamites ===

Both Peter and Jude compare false teachers at large to Balaam, the prophet willing to prophesy ill for a price.⁠[2] After two explicit mentions of greed (2 Pet. 2:3,14), Peter speaks broadly of the false teachers who will arise:

Both Peter and Jude compare false teachers at large to Balaam, the prophet willing to prophesy ill for a price.⁠[2] After two explicit mentions of greed (2 Pet. 2:3,14), Peter speaks broadly of the false teachers who will arise:

<blockquote>Forsaking the right way, they have gone astray. They have followed the way of Balaam, the son of Beor, who loved gain from wrongdoing, ... (2 Pet. 2:15)</blockquote>

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By evoking the name of Balaam, Peter and Jude describe false teachers as primarily motivated by greed.

Additionally, both Peter and Jude employ the descriptor "sensuality" to characterize false teachers’ desire for worldly pleasures (2 Pet. 2:2; Jude 4). While this likely refers to the licentious teachings of the false teachers, the connection to material greed should not be missed. Peter offers "greed" as an immediate expansion on the term "sensuality" (2 Pet. 2:2-3). Jude associates Balaamistic greed with animalistic impulses (Jude 10-11). Though "sensuality" primarily connotes sexual implications, it more broadly refers to all the desires of the flesh. Note that even the tenth commandment (thou shalt not covet) unites the notions of greed and lust. Peter’s introduction of Balaam hints at this link, spelling his father’s name in Greek as "Bosor" rather than "Beor." That is, Peter identifies Balaam as a son of the flesh, transliterating the Hebrew word for "flesh" rather than the actual name of Balaam’s father.⁠[3]

Additionally, both Peter and Jude employ the descriptor "sensuality" to characterize false teachers’ desire for worldly pleasures (2 Pet. 2:2; Jude 4). While this likely refers to the licentious teachings of the false teachers, the connection to material greed should not be missed. Peter offers "greed" as an immediate expansion on the term "sensuality" (2 Pet. 2:2-3). Jude associates Balaamistic greed with animalistic impulses (Jude 10-11). Though "sensuality" primarily connotes sexual implications, it more broadly refers to all the desires of the flesh. Note that even the tenth commandment (thou shalt not covet) unites the notions of greed and lust. Peter’s introduction of Balaam hints at this link, spelling his father’s name in Greek as "Bosor" rather than "Beor." That is, Peter identifies Balaam as a son of the flesh, transliterating the Hebrew word for "flesh" rather than the actual name of Balaam’s father.⁠[3]

Jude further exposes this connection between greed and fleshly desire in his mention of shepherds feeding themselves (Jude 12), an allusion to and the shepherds of Israel who preyed on the sheep. Similarly, Paul speaks of false teachers as being motivated by their appetites (Rom. 16:18) and having their bellies as their gods (Phil 3:19), most likely referring to their desire for compensation.

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=== The Money Lovers ===

Whether they represent a single party or not, Paul depicts the false teachers of the pastoral epistles as lovers of money. Though their origin and many of their beliefs are uncertain, "What is clear from Paul’s words in the Pastoral Epistles is the motivation of false teachers. It is ‘greed.’"⁠[4]

Whether they represent a single party or not, Paul depicts the false teachers of the pastoral epistles as lovers of money. Though their origin and many of their beliefs are uncertain, "What is clear from Paul’s words in the Pastoral Epistles is the motivation of false teachers. It is ‘greed.’"⁠[4]

In 1 Timothy 6:3-10, the apostle warns against false teachers, listing their various qualities. Finally, he settles on the assertion that false teachers consider godliness to be a means of gain (1 Tim. 6:5).

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<blockquote>Just as Jannes and Jambres opposed Moses, so these men also oppose the truth, men corrupted in mind and disqualified regarding the faith. (2 Tim. 3:8)</blockquote>

These two are not mentioned in the Old Testament, but Jewish tradition records them as magicians in the employ of Pharaoh, apprentices of the prophet Balaam.⁠[5] Not only does service to Pharaoh indicate the pursuit of riches (cf. Heb. 11:25), but as we have already seen, the apostles used Balaam’s name synonymously with greed-driven prophecy. This issue of false teachers and the love of money is undoubtedly the same warning that was issued in the previous epistle to Timothy. Once again, Paul highlights the love of money as the standard trait of false teachers.

These two are not mentioned in the Old Testament, but Jewish tradition records them as magicians in the employ of Pharaoh, apprentices of the prophet Balaam.⁠[5] Not only does service to Pharaoh indicate the pursuit of riches (cf. Heb. 11:25), but as we have already seen, the apostles used Balaam’s name synonymously with greed-driven prophecy. This issue of false teachers and the love of money is undoubtedly the same warning that was issued in the previous epistle to Timothy. Once again, Paul highlights the love of money as the standard trait of false teachers.

Likewise, in his epistle to Titus, Paul contrasts true teaching with false teaching. In particular, he warns against the "circumcision party."

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1 Timothy 3:3 plainly forbids an elder not to be a "lover of money." Later in the same epistle, Paul describes the "love of money" as the hallmark of false ministry, a root of all kinds of evil (1 Tim. 6:10).

1 Peter does not directly address false teaching, but its prohibition against greed stands in line with the previous passages. 1 Peter 5:2 requires that elders minister eagerly, not for shameful gain. While the contrast is not immediately apparent, these two are offered within a list of opposites. An elder is not to minister under compulsion but willingly; he is not to be domineering but an example. In this light, eagerness stands opposed to shameful gain. Those who desire money from ministry have a competing motive. We might be quick to reduce this competing motive as problematic only when it is central to the minister, but the text does not warrant such qualifications. Any competing motivation compromises the sincerity—i.e., the eagerness—of a minister. In the words of one theologian, "At the very least, this [passage] implies that Christian leaders should not be motivated to minister by the thought of remuneration or any particular level of payment."⁠[6]

1 Peter does not directly address false teaching, but its prohibition against greed stands in line with the previous passages. 1 Peter 5:2 requires that elders minister eagerly, not for shameful gain. While the contrast is not immediately apparent, these two are offered within a list of opposites. An elder is not to minister under compulsion but willingly; he is not to be domineering but an example. In this light, eagerness stands opposed to shameful gain. Those who desire money from ministry have a competing motive. We might be quick to reduce this competing motive as problematic only when it is central to the minister, but the text does not warrant such qualifications. Any competing motivation compromises the sincerity—i.e., the eagerness—of a minister. In the words of one theologian, "At the very least, this [passage] implies that Christian leaders should not be motivated to minister by the thought of remuneration or any particular level of payment."⁠[6]

=== Conclusion ===

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In the next chapter, we’ll take a look at a particularly notable set of false teachers: the super-apostles of Corinth.

# Carson, ''When Jesus Confronts the World'', 141.

# Perhaps it is not evident why Balaam would be associated with greed, but this was a common assertion in contemporary Jewish literature, derived from Numbers 24:13. See Ginzberg, ''The Legends of the Jews'', 3.360.

# See Luther, ''Commentary on Peter and Jude'', 272; Bauckham, ''Jude, 2 Peter'',

267–268.

# Verbrugge and Krell, ''Paul and Money'', 247.

# See Ginzberg, ''The Legends of the Jews'', 2.335.

# Blomberg, ''Neither Poverty nor Riches', 230.

== 8. The Apostles of Corinth ==

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After imposing a strict policy on himself and his companions, does Paul give a free pass to the apostles from Jerusalem? Once again, the dorean principle resolves this matter neatly.

In Corinth, Paul’s continued refusal of money revolves around the particular sum offered on his initial visit. He regards this as payment for the gospel (cf. 1 Cor. 9:18), ministerial reciprocity. The apostle never receives money from those he is converting.⁠[1] However, as we have already noted, Paul willingly receives money from his churches when the context does not indicate that they intend to repay him for his ministry or for their conversion.

In Corinth, Paul’s continued refusal of money revolves around the particular sum offered on his initial visit. He regards this as payment for the gospel (cf. 1 Cor. 9:18), ministerial reciprocity. The apostle never receives money from those he is converting.⁠[1] However, as we have already noted, Paul willingly receives money from his churches when the context does not indicate that they intend to repay him for his ministry or for their conversion.

The Jerusalem apostles arrived at an established church and would have not received the same offer that Paul received. The finances given to them must have been granted in another context, likely in the weekly contributions a church collects in order to support the proclamation of the gospel. In short, Paul condones other apostles accepting money from the Corinthians because this money would have been given as colabor. In contrast to the reciprocal offering of a grateful convert, these funds constitute the assistance of an established Christian. The former implies a direct obligation to the minister who first shared the gospel, but the latter acknowledges an obligation mediated by God.

=== Paul’s Consistency Toward the Super-Apostles ===

We see that Paul allows the Jerusalem apostles to receive money from Corinth but condemns the super-apostles when they do the same. On one hand, it seems appealing to assume Paul grants privileges to true teachers that he does not grant to false teachers. However, he calls their reception of material support burdensome, even an act of devouring (2 Cor. 11:20).⁠[2] Labeling their financial practices abusive, he leaves no room for a true apostle to engage in the same behavior. Certainly, false apostles should not receive support due a true minister, but Paul objects to their financial practice in its own right.

We see that Paul allows the Jerusalem apostles to receive money from Corinth but condemns the super-apostles when they do the same. On one hand, it seems appealing to assume Paul grants privileges to true teachers that he does not grant to false teachers. However, he calls their reception of material support burdensome, even an act of devouring (2 Cor. 11:20).⁠[2] Labeling their financial practices abusive, he leaves no room for a true apostle to engage in the same behavior. Certainly, false apostles should not receive support due a true minister, but Paul objects to their financial practice in its own right.

In fact, Paul explicitly confirms that he holds them to the same financial standard he holds himself to.

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<blockquote>But we will not boast beyond limits, but will boast only with regard to the area of influence God assigned to us, to reach even to you. For we are not overextending ourselves, as though we did not reach you. For we were the first to come all the way to you with the gospel of Christ. We do not boast beyond limit in the labors of others. But our hope is that as your faith increases, our area of influence among you may be greatly enlarged, so that we may preach the gospel in lands beyond you, without boasting of work already done in another’s area of influence. "Let the one who boasts, boast in the Lord." (2 Cor. 10:13-17)</blockquote>

When Paul claims that he does not boast beyond limits, he implies that the super-apostles do boast beyond limits. Terms such as "limits," "area," "overextending," "reach," etc., indicate some geographic extent, especially given that Paul pairs them with the notion of the gospel expanding beyond Corinth and Achaia (2 Cor. 10:16; 11:10). In other words, the apostle considers the church in Corinth his divinely appointed domain,⁠[3] but his opponents consider it the fruit of their labors. Paul expresses similar concerns elsewhere, declaring that as a church planter, he does not go where Christ has been named, building on another’s foundation (Rom. 15:20). On the other hand, his opponents are eager to operate as pseudo-missionaries who lay claim to another’s work.

When Paul claims that he does not boast beyond limits, he implies that the super-apostles do boast beyond limits. Terms such as "limits," "area," "overextending," "reach," etc., indicate some geographic extent, especially given that Paul pairs them with the notion of the gospel expanding beyond Corinth and Achaia (2 Cor. 10:16; 11:10). In other words, the apostle considers the church in Corinth his divinely appointed domain,⁠[3] but his opponents consider it the fruit of their labors. Paul expresses similar concerns elsewhere, declaring that as a church planter, he does not go where Christ has been named, building on another’s foundation (Rom. 15:20). On the other hand, his opponents are eager to operate as pseudo-missionaries who lay claim to another’s work.

To be clear, Paul takes no issue with others building on his foundation (1 Cor. 3:6, 12-13). Rather, he objects to those who would wrongly assume the status of one who lays a foundation, hence his focus on boasting. Perhaps it is too implausible to suggest that the false apostles have explicitly labeled themselves the founders or spiritual fathers of the Corinthian church, but by his comparisons, Paul at least charges them with having implicitly done so. They overextend themselves, claiming dominion over a region they did not reach first (2 Cor. 10:14). They boast beyond limit in the labors of others (2 Cor. 10:15). They take credit for work already done (2 Cor. 10:16). What is that work, other than the work of church planting? If nothing else, we may say Paul’s opponents encroach on the achievements of his ministry, taking evangelical credit for the spiritual prosperity of Corinth.

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At this point, the dorean principle has resolved four apparent discrepancies in Paul’s disposition toward financial support. In the next chapter, we will broaden our exploration to see that this fundraising ethic is not merely showcased in a few edge cases of apostolic ministry but pervades the whole of the New Testament and even appears in the Old Testament.

# See Hock, “The Working Apostle,” 127n40,133,137–1138.

# For the relationship between “devouring” and the super-apostles’ financial practices, see Harris, ''The Second Epistle to the Corinthians'', 785.

# See Harris, ''The Second Epistle to the Corinthians'', 711–713

== 9. The Pattern of Colabor ==

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While planting the church in Corinth, Paul receives help from others like Lydia, those who already belonged to the fellowship of God. First, he stays with Aquila and Priscilla, fellow Jews (Acts 18:2). Soon after, he stays with Titius Justus, a "worshiper of God" who lived next to the synagogue (Acts 18:7). Since Paul established the church in Corinth, these people undoubtedly converted to Christianity through his ministry. However, they were not converts from pagan religion. The apostle freely receives their help as colabor since he first encountered them as fellow servants of God.

After planting the church, Paul speaks of the hospitality he receives from Gaius, who is "almost certainly"⁠1 the Gaius of Corinth (Rom. 16:23). Phoebe’s status as a patron (Rom. 16:2) indicates that she has supported Paul in Corinth, given that Cenchreae is a port of Corinth, and at least to be identified with the larger region of Achaia. Moreover, Paul spends a winter in Corinth (Acts 20:3, 6; cf. 1 Cor. 16:6),⁠[2] receiving aid from the Corinthians.

After planting the church, Paul speaks of the hospitality he receives from Gaius, who is "almost certainly"⁠[1] the Gaius of Corinth (Rom. 16:23). Phoebe’s status as a patron (Rom. 16:2) indicates that she has supported Paul in Corinth, given that Cenchreae is a port of Corinth, and at least to be identified with the larger region of Achaia. Moreover, Paul spends a winter in Corinth (Acts 20:3, 6; cf. 1 Cor. 16:6),⁠[2] receiving aid from the Corinthians.

These instances of hospitality count as colabor even if none of them are explicitly financial. As long as there is some material provision such as lodging, it fits within the rubric of support, which Paul only selectively accepts. Recall that in Thessalonica, Paul did not take anyone’s bread without paying for it (2 Thess. 3:8). Recall also that Jesus’s command revolved around receiving room and board (Matt. 10:10).

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<blockquote>At the same time, prepare a guest room for me, for I am hoping that through your prayers I will be graciously given to you. (Philem. 1:22)</blockquote>

In saying "at the same time," this request is not set in the context of a returned favor. Instead, Paul contrasts his presence with Philemon to his present imprisonment.⁠[3] He anticipates that he "will be graciously given" to Philemon, not particularly that Philemon will graciously give to him.

In saying "at the same time," this request is not set in the context of a returned favor. Instead, Paul contrasts his presence with Philemon to his present imprisonment.⁠[3] He anticipates that he "will be graciously given" to Philemon, not particularly that Philemon will graciously give to him.

=== The Generosity of Malta ===

In Acts, a chief official of Malta named Publius hosts Paul for three days (Acts 28:7). He may simply be a congenial procurator, his Roman name hinting that it may be his job to watch the prisoners.⁠[4] Given the variables at play, we cannot regard this hospitality as either an act of horizontal reciprocity or an act of colabor. Publius’s interactions with the apostle at this point seem largely confined to Paul as prisoner rather than Paul as minister.

In Acts, a chief official of Malta named Publius hosts Paul for three days (Acts 28:7). He may simply be a congenial procurator, his Roman name hinting that it may be his job to watch the prisoners.⁠[4] Given the variables at play, we cannot regard this hospitality as either an act of horizontal reciprocity or an act of colabor. Publius’s interactions with the apostle at this point seem largely confined to Paul as prisoner rather than Paul as minister.

However, these interactions change after Paul heals Publius’s father and many other island residents. At this point, the Maltese grant the apostolic crew great honor and give them whatever they need for their travels (Acts 28:10). Most likely, "honor" indicates this material gift (cf. 1 Tim. 5:3, 17). Paul does not refuse gifts from these Gentiles though he rejects gifts from many others. Why would he accept this support?

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Plant burgers may fail to impress in practice, but the dorean principle stands up to expectations when put to the test. Now that we have looked more broadly at the testimony of Scripture, we will also look more broadly at the testimony of the church, exploring some of its history following the era of the apostles.

# Moo, ''The Epistle to the Romans'', 935.

# Bruce, ''The Book of the Acts'', 381–382; Jamieson, Fausset, and Brown, ''A Commentary, Critical, Practical, and Explanatory, on the Old and New Testaments'', 3.787.

# See Moo, ''The Letters to the Colossians and to Philemon'', 436–437.

# See Bock, ''Acts'', 744.

== 10. The Testimony of History ==

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Later, after centuries of increased disregard in the church at large, the Reformers recognized the need to restore a biblical ethic of ministry fundraising. By and large, they determined that Scripture forbids the sale of ministry and yet commands the support of ministers. However, these Reformers were largely satisfied to counter the extremes of greed and neglect. The work begun at the time of the Reformation remains in need of completion. For those who wish to take up that mantle, I believe that the dorean principle holds the keys to properly articulating the biblical ethic and putting it into practice.

# See Varner, “The Didache’s Use of the Old and New Testaments,” 130.

# In the words of Kurt Niederwimmer, “it is entirely aimed at practical needs and lacks any theoretical or even speculative exposition of Christian belief. The compiler is no ‘theologian.’” Niederwimmer, ''The Didache'', 2.

# See Patterson, “The Legacy of Radical Itinerancy in Early Christianity,” 315,315n9.

# See Varner, “The Didache’s Use of the Old and New Testaments,” 129.

# See Eusebius, “Church History,” 3.25.4,6.

# See Athanasius, ''Letter'' 39, 7.

# See Niederwimmer, ''The Didache'', 4–18.

# See Jefford, “Did Ignatius of Antioch Know the Didache?”

# Unless otherwise noted, all quotations here of the ''Didache'' and ''The Shepherd of Hermas'' come from Lightfoot, ''The Apostolic Fathers''.

# The ''Didache'' uses the term ''christemporos'', a single word combining the Greek words ''christos'' (Christ) and ''emporos'' (merchant). “Christ-monger” is the translation provided by Roberts and Donaldson, ''The Ante-Nicene Fathers''.

# Note, for example, that the ''Didache'' remarks that a laborer is worthy of his “food” (as in Matthew 10:10), rather than his “wages” (as in 1 Timothy 5:18). In part, a lack of direct reference to the Pauline corpus demonstrates this lack of exposure.

# See Milavec, ''The Didache'', ix. Additionally, the indications of an arid climate suggest a geographic locale removed from the missional territory of Paul. See Gonzalez, “New Testament Koinonia and Wealth,” 224.

# Niederwimmer remarks that this embargo on extended hospitality “recalls the prohibitions of Jesus against taking wallet or money on missionary activity.” Niederwimmer, ''The Didache'', 166–177.

# The Muratorian Canon commends ''The Shepherd of Hermas'' as a useful work. Likewise, Irenaeus, Hippolytus, Ambrose, Jerome, Athanasius, and others reference it positively. See Osiek, ''The Shepherd of Hermas'', 4–7.

# Eusebius, “Church History,” 5.18.2.

# Ibid., 5.18.4,11.

# Ibid., 5.18.7.

# Tertullian, “Apology,” 39.

# Luther, ''First Principles of the Reformation'', 69.

# Plass, ''What Luther Says'', 1016.

# See Luther, ''A Commentary on St. Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians'', 237–238.

== 11. The Scope of Ministry ==

@@ Line 213: / Line 213: @@
 === Rejection of Reciprocity ===
 In 1 Corinthians 9 and 2 Corinthians 11, Paul explains that he refuses to preach for pay. He lists a variety of reasons why he does this, but these reasons may not overturn the simple what of his actions. In both of these passages, the apostle provides a direct description of his policy: to ''preach the gospel free of charge''.<blockquote>''What then is my reward? That in my preaching I may present the gospel free of charge, so as not to make full use of my right in the gospel.'' (1 Cor. 9:18)
 ''Or did I commit a sin in humbling myself so that you might be exalted, because I preached God’s gospel to you free of charge?'' (2 Cor. 11:7)</blockquote>Simply stated, Paul rejects reciprocity, all that is offered in direct exchange for his work of ministry.
@@ Line 435: / Line 433: @@
 # More precisely, Paul alternates between two root words in Greek—''narkao'' and ''bareo''—to communicate the notion of "burden".
-# Paul says he robbed "churches" () but that only Philippi supported him (). It is possible there may have been multiple churches in Philippi. See Briones, ''Paul’s Financial Policy''.
+# Paul says he robbed “churches” (2 Cor. 11:8) but that only Philippi supported him (Phil. 4:15). It is possible there may have been multiple churches in Philippi. See Briones, D. E. (2013). ''Paul’s Financial Policy: A Socio-Theological Approach''. Bloomsbury T&T Clark.
 # So Verbrugge and Krell, ''Paul and Money'', 71
 # Theissen, Fortress Introduction to the New Testament, 75.
@@ Line 509: / Line 507: @@
 <blockquote>For if I do this of my own will, I have a reward, but if not of my own will, I am still entrusted with a stewardship. What then is my reward? That in my preaching I may present the gospel free of charge, so as not to make full use of my right in the gospel. (1 Cor. 9:17-18)</blockquote>
-Surprisingly, Paul’s activity and reward are identical: to preach the gospel free of charge. The idea is not that the apostle, by refusing money, accrues merit with which he will receive a reward. Instead, by refusing money he enjoys the reward itself—the stewardship he executes, Christ working through him. Given the preceding context of boasting (1 Cor. 9:15-16), we should not distinguish Paul’s boasting from his reward. In the words of one commentator, they "refer to the same reality."⁠1 In either the framework of boasting or that of reward, Paul stands to gain from preaching free of charge because then Christ may be seen working through him.
+Surprisingly, Paul’s activity and reward are identical: to preach the gospel free of charge. The idea is not that the apostle, by refusing money, accrues merit with which he will receive a reward. Instead, by refusing money he enjoys the reward itself—the stewardship he executes, Christ working through him. Given the preceding context of boasting (1 Cor. 9:15-16), we should not distinguish Paul’s boasting from his reward. In the words of one commentator, they "refer to the same reality."⁠<sup>[1]</sup> In either the framework of boasting or that of reward, Paul stands to gain from preaching free of charge because then Christ may be seen working through him.
 In contrast, if Paul were to receive payment, his reward would be the payment itself. He would operate as a voluntary laborer setting his own fees, so he would no longer function as a servant bound by his master (cf. John 7:18). Thus, accepting financial reward would forfeit the greater reward: godly stewardship. This recalls the teaching of Christ in the Sermon on the Mount.
@@ Line 526: / Line 524: @@
 Furthermore, rather than stirring up goodwill through offering the gospel free of charge, we learn in 2 Corinthians that Paul only stirred up tension as those with more financially glorious ministries turned the people away to different teaching (2 Cor. 11:7). Between a free gospel and one offered at a price, the Corinthians, who so valued wealth and status in their leaders, found the latter more enticing!
-While many have read 1 Corinthians 9 to speak of Paul’s contextualizing of the gospel, something more specific is at play: Each of these phrases of accommodation represents some act of humility.⁠2 Though already a Jew, the apostle voluntarily became a Jew under the judgment of the law by receiving thirty-nine lashes (2 Cor. 11:24). He became as one without the law, renouncing all of his own merit based on law-keeping (Gal. 4:12). He became weak by enduring the hardships and humiliations of ministry (2 Cor. 12:9). These "accommodations" impress no one, yet are necessary for the gospel to go forward.
+While many have read 1 Corinthians 9 to speak of Paul’s contextualizing of the gospel, something more specific is at play: Each of these phrases of accommodation represents some act of humility.⁠<sup>[2]</sup> Though already a Jew, the apostle voluntarily became a Jew under the judgment of the law by receiving thirty-nine lashes (2 Cor. 11:24). He became as one without the law, renouncing all of his own merit based on law-keeping (Gal. 4:12). He became weak by enduring the hardships and humiliations of ministry (2 Cor. 12:9). These "accommodations" impress no one, yet are necessary for the gospel to go forward.
 The key to all of this may be found in v. 19. Paul does not imitate all but rather humbles himself in order to serve all. As a servant of Christ, Paul must also be a servant to those to whom he is sent (2 Cor. 4:5; cf. 2 Cor. 1:24). He does not generally act like a Jew for Jews, or a Gentile for Gentiles, or a weak person for the weak, but he is a servant to all in every circumstance by humbling himself so that the truth of the gospel may be properly acknowledged. We should not be misguided by the apostle’s clever rhetorical device, imagining that he would become popular for the popular, strong for the strong, or rich for the rich.
@@ Line 536: / Line 534: @@
 === Conclusion ===
 The duty of servanthood demands the dorean principle. As a servant, Paul must reject ministerial reciprocity, and he must accept ministerial colabor. In the next chapter, we will look at Paul’s motivations through an additional lens: his sincerity.
+# Fee, ''The First Epistle to the Corinthians'', 421.
+# See David E. Garland’s commentary for further demonstrations that each of these phrases represents an act of humility. Garland, ''1 Corinthians'', 427-437.
 == 6. The Sincerity of Ministry ==
@@ Line 622: / Line 623: @@
 Sincerity propels the dorean principle. That is, ''dorean ministry is sincere ministry''. In the next chapter, we will see that the Bible identifies all non-dorean ministry as insincere, the work of false teachers.
+# See Hooker, “A Partner in the Gospel,” 87; Schutz, ''Paul and the Anatomy of Apostolic Authority'', 53.
+# Orr and Walther, ''1 Corinthians'', 243.
 == 7. The Greed of Wolves ==
@@ Line 663: / Line 667: @@
 Do not mistake the ethical transgression for a misunderstanding about the mechanics of impartation. Explicitly, Peter rebukes Simon because he thought the gift of God ''could'' be obtained by money. Implicitly, the apostle rebukes the magician because he thought the gift of God ''ought'' to be given for money. Simon treats Peter as a minister for profit and sets himself up to potentially become one as well, doling out this power to others who have the coin to spare.
-By virtue of its narrative form, this passage centers around the particulars of one individual, Simon. However, the prominence of this event in the fledgling church signifies the divine delivery of a generalized principle. It is not merely ''impossible'' to facilitate the distribution of the gift of the Holy Spirit by means of financial exchange; it is ''dishonorable'' to make any such attempt. Broadly speaking, any ministry—miraculous or non-miraculous—constitutes an attempt to impart the blessing of the Holy Spirit. In this light, the passage condemns all ministerial reciprocity. In the words of D. A. Carson, "Those who charge for spiritual ministry are dabbling in simony."⁠1
+By virtue of its narrative form, this passage centers around the particulars of one individual, Simon. However, the prominence of this event in the fledgling church signifies the divine delivery of a generalized principle. It is not merely ''impossible'' to facilitate the distribution of the gift of the Holy Spirit by means of financial exchange; it is ''dishonorable'' to make any such attempt. Broadly speaking, any ministry—miraculous or non-miraculous—constitutes an attempt to impart the blessing of the Holy Spirit. In this light, the passage condemns all ministerial reciprocity. In the words of D. A. Carson, "Those who charge for spiritual ministry are dabbling in simony."⁠<sup>12]</sup>
 === The Balaamites ===
-Both Peter and Jude compare false teachers at large to Balaam, the prophet willing to prophesy ill for a price.⁠[2] After two explicit mentions of greed (2 Pet. 2:3,14), Peter speaks broadly of the false teachers who will arise:
+Both Peter and Jude compare false teachers at large to Balaam, the prophet willing to prophesy ill for a price.⁠<sup>[2]</sup> After two explicit mentions of greed (2 Pet. 2:3,14), Peter speaks broadly of the false teachers who will arise:
 <blockquote>Forsaking the right way, they have gone astray. They have followed the way of Balaam, the son of Beor, who loved gain from wrongdoing, ... (2 Pet. 2:15)</blockquote>
@@ Line 676: / Line 680: @@
 By evoking the name of Balaam, Peter and Jude describe false teachers as primarily motivated by greed.
-Additionally, both Peter and Jude employ the descriptor "sensuality" to characterize false teachers’ desire for worldly pleasures (2 Pet. 2:2; Jude 4). While this likely refers to the licentious teachings of the false teachers, the connection to material greed should not be missed. Peter offers "greed" as an immediate expansion on the term "sensuality" (2 Pet. 2:2-3). Jude associates Balaamistic greed with animalistic impulses (Jude 10-11). Though "sensuality" primarily connotes sexual implications, it more broadly refers to all the desires of the flesh. Note that even the tenth commandment (thou shalt not covet) unites the notions of greed and lust. Peter’s introduction of Balaam hints at this link, spelling his father’s name in Greek as "Bosor" rather than "Beor." That is, Peter identifies Balaam as a son of the flesh, transliterating the Hebrew word for "flesh" rather than the actual name of Balaam’s father.⁠[3]
+Additionally, both Peter and Jude employ the descriptor "sensuality" to characterize false teachers’ desire for worldly pleasures (2 Pet. 2:2; Jude 4). While this likely refers to the licentious teachings of the false teachers, the connection to material greed should not be missed. Peter offers "greed" as an immediate expansion on the term "sensuality" (2 Pet. 2:2-3). Jude associates Balaamistic greed with animalistic impulses (Jude 10-11). Though "sensuality" primarily connotes sexual implications, it more broadly refers to all the desires of the flesh. Note that even the tenth commandment (thou shalt not covet) unites the notions of greed and lust. Peter’s introduction of Balaam hints at this link, spelling his father’s name in Greek as "Bosor" rather than "Beor." That is, Peter identifies Balaam as a son of the flesh, transliterating the Hebrew word for "flesh" rather than the actual name of Balaam’s father.⁠<sup>[3]</sup>
 Jude further exposes this connection between greed and fleshly desire in his mention of shepherds feeding themselves (Jude 12), an allusion to  and the shepherds of Israel who preyed on the sheep. Similarly, Paul speaks of false teachers as being motivated by their appetites (Rom. 16:18) and having their bellies as their gods (Phil 3:19), most likely referring to their desire for compensation.
@@ Line 683: / Line 687: @@
 === The Money Lovers ===
-Whether they represent a single party or not, Paul depicts the false teachers of the pastoral epistles as lovers of money. Though their origin and many of their beliefs are uncertain, "What is clear from Paul’s words in the Pastoral Epistles is the motivation of false teachers. It is ‘greed.’"⁠[4]
+Whether they represent a single party or not, Paul depicts the false teachers of the pastoral epistles as lovers of money. Though their origin and many of their beliefs are uncertain, "What is clear from Paul’s words in the Pastoral Epistles is the motivation of false teachers. It is ‘greed.’"⁠<sup>[4]</sup>
 In 1 Timothy 6:3-10, the apostle warns against false teachers, listing their various qualities. Finally, he settles on the assertion that false teachers consider godliness to be a means of gain (1 Tim. 6:5).
@@ Line 695: / Line 699: @@
 <blockquote>Just as Jannes and Jambres opposed Moses, so these men also oppose the truth, men corrupted in mind and disqualified regarding the faith. (2 Tim. 3:8)</blockquote>
-These two are not mentioned in the Old Testament, but Jewish tradition records them as magicians in the employ of Pharaoh, apprentices of the prophet Balaam.⁠[5] Not only does service to Pharaoh indicate the pursuit of riches (cf. Heb. 11:25), but as we have already seen, the apostles used Balaam’s name synonymously with greed-driven prophecy. This issue of false teachers and the love of money is undoubtedly the same warning that was issued in the previous epistle to Timothy. Once again, Paul highlights the love of money as the standard trait of false teachers.
+These two are not mentioned in the Old Testament, but Jewish tradition records them as magicians in the employ of Pharaoh, apprentices of the prophet Balaam.⁠<sup>[5]</sup> Not only does service to Pharaoh indicate the pursuit of riches (cf. Heb. 11:25), but as we have already seen, the apostles used Balaam’s name synonymously with greed-driven prophecy. This issue of false teachers and the love of money is undoubtedly the same warning that was issued in the previous epistle to Timothy. Once again, Paul highlights the love of money as the standard trait of false teachers.
 Likewise, in his epistle to Titus, Paul contrasts true teaching with false teaching. In particular, he warns against the "circumcision party."
@@ Line 710: / Line 714: @@
 Timothy 3:3 plainly forbids an elder not to be a "lover of money." Later in the same epistle, Paul describes the "love of money" as the hallmark of false ministry, a root of all kinds of evil (1 Tim. 6:10).
-Peter does not directly address false teaching, but its prohibition against greed stands in line with the previous passages. 1 Peter 5:2 requires that elders minister eagerly, not for shameful gain. While the contrast is not immediately apparent, these two are offered within a list of opposites. An elder is not to minister under compulsion but willingly; he is not to be domineering but an example. In this light, eagerness stands opposed to shameful gain. Those who desire money from ministry have a competing motive. We might be quick to reduce this competing motive as problematic only when it is central to the minister, but the text does not warrant such qualifications. Any competing motivation compromises the sincerity—i.e., the eagerness—of a minister. In the words of one theologian, "At the very least, this [passage] implies that Christian leaders should not be motivated to minister by the thought of remuneration or any particular level of payment."⁠[6]
+Peter does not directly address false teaching, but its prohibition against greed stands in line with the previous passages. 1 Peter 5:2 requires that elders minister eagerly, not for shameful gain. While the contrast is not immediately apparent, these two are offered within a list of opposites. An elder is not to minister under compulsion but willingly; he is not to be domineering but an example. In this light, eagerness stands opposed to shameful gain. Those who desire money from ministry have a competing motive. We might be quick to reduce this competing motive as problematic only when it is central to the minister, but the text does not warrant such qualifications. Any competing motivation compromises the sincerity—i.e., the eagerness—of a minister. In the words of one theologian, "At the very least, this [passage] implies that Christian leaders should not be motivated to minister by the thought of remuneration or any particular level of payment."⁠<sup>[6]</sup>
 === Conclusion ===
@@ Line 718: / Line 722: @@
 In the next chapter, we’ll take a look at a particularly notable set of false teachers: the super-apostles of Corinth.
+# Carson, ''When Jesus Confronts the World'', 141.
+# Perhaps it is not evident why Balaam would be associated with greed, but this was a common assertion in contemporary Jewish literature, derived from Numbers 24:13. See Ginzberg, ''The Legends of the Jews'', 3.360.
+# See Luther, ''Commentary on Peter and Jude'', 272; Bauckham, ''Jude, 2 Peter'',
+–268.
+# Verbrugge and Krell, ''Paul and Money'', 247.
+# See Ginzberg, ''The Legends of the Jews'', 2.335.
+# Blomberg, ''Neither Poverty nor Riches', 230.
 == 8. The Apostles of Corinth ==
@@ Line 764: / Line 776: @@
 After imposing a strict policy on himself and his companions, does Paul give a free pass to the apostles from Jerusalem? Once again, the dorean principle resolves this matter neatly.
-In Corinth, Paul’s continued refusal of money revolves around the particular sum offered on his initial visit. He regards this as payment for the gospel (cf. 1 Cor. 9:18), ministerial reciprocity. The apostle never receives money from those he is converting.⁠[1] However, as we have already noted, Paul willingly receives money from his churches when the context does not indicate that they intend to repay him for his ministry or for their conversion.
+In Corinth, Paul’s continued refusal of money revolves around the particular sum offered on his initial visit. He regards this as payment for the gospel (cf. 1 Cor. 9:18), ministerial reciprocity. The apostle never receives money from those he is converting.⁠<sup>[1]</sup> However, as we have already noted, Paul willingly receives money from his churches when the context does not indicate that they intend to repay him for his ministry or for their conversion.
 The Jerusalem apostles arrived at an established church and would have not received the same offer that Paul received. The finances given to them must have been granted in another context, likely in the weekly contributions a church collects in order to support the proclamation of the gospel. In short, Paul condones other apostles accepting money from the Corinthians because this money would have been given as colabor. In contrast to the reciprocal offering of a grateful convert, these funds constitute the assistance of an established Christian. The former implies a direct obligation to the minister who first shared the gospel, but the latter acknowledges an obligation mediated by God.
 === Paul’s Consistency Toward the Super-Apostles ===
-We see that Paul allows the Jerusalem apostles to receive money from Corinth but condemns the super-apostles when they do the same. On one hand, it seems appealing to assume Paul grants privileges to true teachers that he does not grant to false teachers. However, he calls their reception of material support burdensome, even an act of devouring (2 Cor. 11:20).⁠[2] Labeling their financial practices abusive, he leaves no room for a true apostle to engage in the same behavior. Certainly, false apostles should not receive support due a true minister, but Paul objects to their financial practice in its own right.
+We see that Paul allows the Jerusalem apostles to receive money from Corinth but condemns the super-apostles when they do the same. On one hand, it seems appealing to assume Paul grants privileges to true teachers that he does not grant to false teachers. However, he calls their reception of material support burdensome, even an act of devouring (2 Cor. 11:20).⁠<sup>[2]</sup> Labeling their financial practices abusive, he leaves no room for a true apostle to engage in the same behavior. Certainly, false apostles should not receive support due a true minister, but Paul objects to their financial practice in its own right.
 In fact, Paul explicitly confirms that he holds them to the same financial standard he holds himself to.
@@ Line 792: / Line 804: @@
 <blockquote>But we will not boast beyond limits, but will boast only with regard to the area of influence God assigned to us, to reach even to you. For we are not overextending ourselves, as though we did not reach you. For we were the first to come all the way to you with the gospel of Christ. We do not boast beyond limit in the labors of others. But our hope is that as your faith increases, our area of influence among you may be greatly enlarged, so that we may preach the gospel in lands beyond you, without boasting of work already done in another’s area of influence. "Let the one who boasts, boast in the Lord." (2 Cor. 10:13-17)</blockquote>
-When Paul claims that he does not boast beyond limits, he implies that the super-apostles do boast beyond limits. Terms such as "limits," "area," "overextending," "reach," etc., indicate some geographic extent, especially given that Paul pairs them with the notion of the gospel expanding beyond Corinth and Achaia (2 Cor. 10:16; 11:10). In other words, the apostle considers the church in Corinth his divinely appointed domain,⁠[3] but his opponents consider it the fruit of their labors. Paul expresses similar concerns elsewhere, declaring that as a church planter, he does not go where Christ has been named, building on another’s foundation (Rom. 15:20). On the other hand, his opponents are eager to operate as pseudo-missionaries who lay claim to another’s work.
+When Paul claims that he does not boast beyond limits, he implies that the super-apostles do boast beyond limits. Terms such as "limits," "area," "overextending," "reach," etc., indicate some geographic extent, especially given that Paul pairs them with the notion of the gospel expanding beyond Corinth and Achaia (2 Cor. 10:16; 11:10). In other words, the apostle considers the church in Corinth his divinely appointed domain,⁠<sup>[3]</sup> but his opponents consider it the fruit of their labors. Paul expresses similar concerns elsewhere, declaring that as a church planter, he does not go where Christ has been named, building on another’s foundation (Rom. 15:20). On the other hand, his opponents are eager to operate as pseudo-missionaries who lay claim to another’s work.
 To be clear, Paul takes no issue with others building on his foundation (1 Cor. 3:6, 12-13). Rather, he objects to those who would wrongly assume the status of one who lays a foundation, hence his focus on boasting. Perhaps it is too implausible to suggest that the false apostles have explicitly labeled themselves the founders or spiritual fathers of the Corinthian church, but by his comparisons, Paul at least charges them with having implicitly done so. They overextend themselves, claiming dominion over a region they did not reach first (2 Cor. 10:14). They boast beyond limit in the labors of others (2 Cor. 10:15). They take credit for work already done (2 Cor. 10:16). What is that work, other than the work of church planting? If nothing else, we may say Paul’s opponents encroach on the achievements of his ministry, taking evangelical credit for the spiritual prosperity of Corinth.
@@ Line 811: / Line 823: @@
 At this point, the dorean principle has resolved four apparent discrepancies in Paul’s disposition toward financial support. In the next chapter, we will broaden our exploration to see that this fundraising ethic is not merely showcased in a few edge cases of apostolic ministry but pervades the whole of the New Testament and even appears in the Old Testament.
+# See Hock, “The Working Apostle,” 127n40,133,137–1138.
+# For the relationship between “devouring” and the super-apostles’ financial practices, see Harris, ''The Second Epistle to the Corinthians'', 785.
+# See Harris, ''The Second Epistle to the Corinthians'', 711–713
 == 9. The Pattern of Colabor ==
@@ Line 861: / Line 877: @@
 While planting the church in Corinth, Paul receives help from others like Lydia, those who already belonged to the fellowship of God. First, he stays with Aquila and Priscilla, fellow Jews (Acts 18:2). Soon after, he stays with Titius Justus, a "worshiper of God" who lived next to the synagogue (Acts 18:7). Since Paul established the church in Corinth, these people undoubtedly converted to Christianity through his ministry. However, they were not converts from pagan religion. The apostle freely receives their help as colabor since he first encountered them as fellow servants of God.
-After planting the church, Paul speaks of the hospitality he receives from Gaius, who is "almost certainly"⁠1 the Gaius of Corinth (Rom. 16:23). Phoebe’s status as a patron (Rom. 16:2) indicates that she has supported Paul in Corinth, given that Cenchreae is a port of Corinth, and at least to be identified with the larger region of Achaia. Moreover, Paul spends a winter in Corinth (Acts 20:3, 6; cf. 1 Cor. 16:6),⁠[2] receiving aid from the Corinthians.
+After planting the church, Paul speaks of the hospitality he receives from Gaius, who is "almost certainly"⁠<sup>[1]</sup> the Gaius of Corinth (Rom. 16:23). Phoebe’s status as a patron (Rom. 16:2) indicates that she has supported Paul in Corinth, given that Cenchreae is a port of Corinth, and at least to be identified with the larger region of Achaia. Moreover, Paul spends a winter in Corinth (Acts 20:3, 6; cf. 1 Cor. 16:6),⁠<sup>[2]</sup> receiving aid from the Corinthians.
 These instances of hospitality count as colabor even if none of them are explicitly financial. As long as there is some material provision such as lodging, it fits within the rubric of support, which Paul only selectively accepts. Recall that in Thessalonica, Paul did not take anyone’s bread without paying for it (2 Thess. 3:8). Recall also that Jesus’s command revolved around receiving room and board (Matt. 10:10).
@@ Line 878: / Line 894: @@
 <blockquote>At the same time, prepare a guest room for me, for I am hoping that through your prayers I will be graciously given to you. (Philem. 1:22)</blockquote>
-In saying "at the same time," this request is not set in the context of a returned favor. Instead, Paul contrasts his presence with Philemon to his present imprisonment.⁠[3] He anticipates that he "will be graciously given" to Philemon, not particularly that Philemon will graciously give to him.
+In saying "at the same time," this request is not set in the context of a returned favor. Instead, Paul contrasts his presence with Philemon to his present imprisonment.⁠<sup>[3]</sup> He anticipates that he "will be graciously given" to Philemon, not particularly that Philemon will graciously give to him.
 === The Generosity of Malta ===
-In Acts, a chief official of Malta named Publius hosts Paul for three days (Acts 28:7). He may simply be a congenial procurator, his Roman name hinting that it may be his job to watch the prisoners.⁠[4] Given the variables at play, we cannot regard this hospitality as either an act of horizontal reciprocity or an act of colabor. Publius’s interactions with the apostle at this point seem largely confined to Paul as prisoner rather than Paul as minister.
+In Acts, a chief official of Malta named Publius hosts Paul for three days (Acts 28:7). He may simply be a congenial procurator, his Roman name hinting that it may be his job to watch the prisoners.⁠</sup>[4]</sup> Given the variables at play, we cannot regard this hospitality as either an act of horizontal reciprocity or an act of colabor. Publius’s interactions with the apostle at this point seem largely confined to Paul as prisoner rather than Paul as minister.
 However, these interactions change after Paul heals Publius’s father and many other island residents. At this point, the Maltese grant the apostolic crew great honor and give them whatever they need for their travels (Acts 28:10). Most likely, "honor" indicates this material gift (cf. 1 Tim. 5:3, 17). Paul does not refuse gifts from these Gentiles though he rejects gifts from many others. Why would he accept this support?
@@ Line 902: / Line 918: @@
 Plant burgers may fail to impress in practice, but the dorean principle stands up to expectations when put to the test. Now that we have looked more broadly at the testimony of Scripture, we will also look more broadly at the testimony of the church, exploring some of its history following the era of the apostles.
+# Moo, ''The Epistle to the Romans'', 935.
+# Bruce, ''The Book of the Acts'', 381–382; Jamieson, Fausset, and Brown, ''A Commentary, Critical, Practical, and Explanatory, on the Old and New Testaments'', 3.787.
+# See Moo, ''The Letters to the Colossians and to Philemon'', 436–437.
+# See Bock, ''Acts'', 744.
 == 10. The Testimony of History ==
@@ Line 984: / Line 1,005: @@
 Later, after centuries of increased disregard in the church at large, the Reformers recognized the need to restore a biblical ethic of ministry fundraising. By and large, they determined that Scripture forbids the sale of ministry and yet commands the support of ministers. However, these Reformers were largely satisfied to counter the extremes of greed and neglect. The work begun at the time of the Reformation remains in need of completion. For those who wish to take up that mantle, I believe that the dorean principle holds the keys to properly articulating the biblical ethic and putting it into practice.
+# See Varner, “The Didache’s Use of the Old and New Testaments,” 130.
+# In the words of Kurt Niederwimmer, “it is entirely aimed at practical needs and lacks any theoretical or even speculative exposition of Christian belief. The compiler is no ‘theologian.’” Niederwimmer, ''The Didache'', 2.
+# See Patterson, “The Legacy of Radical Itinerancy in Early Christianity,” 315,315n9.
+# See Varner, “The Didache’s Use of the Old and New Testaments,” 129.
+# See Eusebius, “Church History,” 3.25.4,6.
+# See Athanasius, ''Letter'' 39, 7.
+# See Niederwimmer, ''The Didache'', 4–18.
+# See Jefford, “Did Ignatius of Antioch Know the Didache?”
+# Unless otherwise noted, all quotations here of the ''Didache'' and ''The Shepherd of Hermas'' come from Lightfoot, ''The Apostolic Fathers''.
+# The ''Didache'' uses the term ''christemporos'', a single word combining the Greek words ''christos'' (Christ) and ''emporos'' (merchant). “Christ-monger” is the translation provided by Roberts and Donaldson, ''The Ante-Nicene Fathers''.
+# Note, for example, that the ''Didache'' remarks that a laborer is worthy of his “food” (as in Matthew 10:10), rather than his “wages” (as in 1 Timothy 5:18). In part, a lack of direct reference to the Pauline corpus demonstrates this lack of exposure.
+# See Milavec, ''The Didache'', ix. Additionally, the indications of an arid climate suggest a geographic locale removed from the missional territory of Paul. See Gonzalez, “New Testament Koinonia and Wealth,” 224.
+# Niederwimmer remarks that this embargo on extended hospitality “recalls the prohibitions of Jesus against taking wallet or money on missionary activity.” Niederwimmer, ''The Didache'', 166–177.
+# The Muratorian Canon commends ''The Shepherd of Hermas'' as a useful work. Likewise, Irenaeus, Hippolytus, Ambrose, Jerome, Athanasius, and others reference it positively. See Osiek, ''The Shepherd of Hermas'', 4–7.
+# Eusebius, “Church History,” 5.18.2.
+# Ibid., 5.18.4,11.
+# Ibid., 5.18.7.
+# Tertullian, “Apology,” 39.
+# Luther, ''First Principles of the Reformation'', 69.
+# Plass, ''What Luther Says'', 1016.
+# See Luther, ''A Commentary on St. Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians'', 237–238.
 == 11. The Scope of Ministry ==