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Martin Bucer: Difference between revisions
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==Historical context== | ==Historical context== | ||
[[Image:Saxony and cities Bucer.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Map showing the two partitions that made up Saxony in green and pink. Saxony had long been divided into two principalities, one of which, with its capital at Wittenberg, was an [[Electoral Saxony|electorate]]. Charles V transferred the electorate and much of its territory to Albertine Saxony in 1547 after the defeat of the [[Schmalkaldic League]] and [[John Frederick I, Elector of Saxony]]. Hesse was to the west of Saxony. Important cities that Bucer visited are shown in red.]] | [[Image:Saxony and cities Bucer.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Map showing the two partitions that made up Saxony in green and pink. Saxony had long been divided into two principalities, one of which, with its capital at Wittenberg, was an [[Electoral Saxony|electorate]]. Charles V transferred the electorate and much of its territory to Albertine Saxony in 1547 after the defeat of the [[Schmalkaldic League]] and [[John Frederick I, Elector of Saxony]]. Hesse was to the west of Saxony. Important cities that Bucer visited are shown in red.]] | ||
In the 16th century, the [[Holy Roman Empire]] was a | In the 16th century, the [[Holy Roman Empire]] was a centralized state in name only. The Empire was divided into many princely and city states that provided a powerful check on the rule of the [[Holy Roman Emperor]]. The division of power between the emperor and the various states made the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] in Germany possible, as individual states defended reformers within their territories. In the [[Electorate of Saxony]], [[Martin Luther]] was supported by the elector [[Frederick III, Elector of Saxony|Frederick III]] and his successors [[John, Elector of Saxony|John]] and [[John Frederick I, Elector of Saxony|John Frederick]]. [[Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse]]—whose lands lay midway between Saxony and the Rhine—also supported the Reformation, and he figured prominently in the lives of both Luther and Bucer. The Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] had to balance the demands of his imperial subjects. At the same time, he was often distracted by war with France and the [[Ottoman Empire]] and in Italy. The political rivalry among all the players greatly influenced the ecclesiastical developments within the Empire. | ||
In addition to the princely states, [[free imperial city|free imperial cities]], nominally under the control of the Emperor but really ruled by councils that acted like sovereign governments, were scattered throughout the Empire. As the Reformation took root, clashes broke out in many cities between local reformers and conservative city magistrates. It was in a free imperial city, [[Strasbourg]], that Martin Bucer began his work. Located on the western frontier of the Empire, Strasbourg was closely allied with the Swiss cities that had thrown off the imperial yoke. Some had adopted a reformed religion distinct from Lutheranism, in which [[Renaissance humanism|humanist]] social concepts and the communal ethic played a greater role. Along with a group of free imperial cities in the south and west of the German lands, Strasbourg followed this pattern of Reformation. It was ruled by a complex local government largely under the control of a few powerful families and wealthy guildsmen. In Bucer's time, social unrest was growing as lower-level [[artisan]]s resented their social immobility and the widening income gap. The citizens may not have planned revolution, but they were receptive to new ideas that might transform their lives. | In addition to the princely states, [[free imperial city|free imperial cities]], nominally under the control of the Emperor but really ruled by councils that acted like sovereign governments, were scattered throughout the Empire. As the Reformation took root, clashes broke out in many cities between local reformers and conservative city magistrates. It was in a free imperial city, [[Strasbourg]], that Martin Bucer began his work. Located on the western frontier of the Empire, Strasbourg was closely allied with the Swiss cities that had thrown off the imperial yoke. Some had adopted a reformed religion distinct from Lutheranism, in which [[Renaissance humanism|humanist]] social concepts and the communal ethic played a greater role. Along with a group of free imperial cities in the south and west of the German lands, Strasbourg followed this pattern of Reformation. It was ruled by a complex local government largely under the control of a few powerful families and wealthy guildsmen. In Bucer's time, social unrest was growing as lower-level [[artisan]]s resented their social immobility and the widening income gap. The citizens may not have planned revolution, but they were receptive to new ideas that might transform their lives. | ||
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The events that caused Bucer to leave the Dominican Order arose from his embrace of new ideas and his growing contact with other humanists and reformers. A fellow Dominican, [[Jacob van Hoogstraaten]], the [[Grand Inquisitor]] of [[Cologne]], tried to prosecute [[Johann Reuchlin]], a humanist scholar. Other humanists, including the nobles [[Ulrich von Hutten]] and [[Imperial Knight]] [[Franz von Sickingen]], took Reuchlin's side. Hoogstraten was thwarted, but he now planned to target Bucer. On 11 November 1520, Bucer told the reformer [[Wolfgang Capito]] in a letter that Hoogstraaten was threatening to make an example of him as a follower of Luther. To escape Dominican jurisdiction, Bucer needed to be freed of his monastic vows. Capito and others were able to expedite the annulment of his vows, and on 29 April 1521 he was formally released from the Dominican Order. | The events that caused Bucer to leave the Dominican Order arose from his embrace of new ideas and his growing contact with other humanists and reformers. A fellow Dominican, [[Jacob van Hoogstraaten]], the [[Grand Inquisitor]] of [[Cologne]], tried to prosecute [[Johann Reuchlin]], a humanist scholar. Other humanists, including the nobles [[Ulrich von Hutten]] and [[Imperial Knight]] [[Franz von Sickingen]], took Reuchlin's side. Hoogstraten was thwarted, but he now planned to target Bucer. On 11 November 1520, Bucer told the reformer [[Wolfgang Capito]] in a letter that Hoogstraaten was threatening to make an example of him as a follower of Luther. To escape Dominican jurisdiction, Bucer needed to be freed of his monastic vows. Capito and others were able to expedite the annulment of his vows, and on 29 April 1521 he was formally released from the Dominican Order. | ||
For the next two years, Bucer was protected by Sickingen and Hutten. He also worked for a time at the court of [[Louis V, Elector Palatine|Ludwig V, Elector Palatine]], as chaplain to Ludwig's younger brother [[Frederick II, Elector Palatine|Frederick]]. Sickingen was a senior figure at Ludwig's court. This appointment enabled Bucer to live in [[Nuremberg]], the most powerful city of the Empire, whose governing officials were strongly reformist. There he met many people who shared his viewpoint, including the humanist [[Willibald Pirckheimer]] and the future Nuremberg reformer [[Andreas Osiander]]. In September 1521, Bucer accepted Sickingen's offer of the position of pastor at [[Landstuhl]], where Sickingen had a castle, and Bucer moved to the town in May 1522. | For the next two years, Bucer was protected by Sickingen and Hutten. He also worked for a time at the court of [[Louis V, Elector Palatine|Ludwig V, Elector Palatine]], as chaplain to Ludwig's younger brother [[Frederick II, Elector Palatine|Frederick]]. Sickingen was a senior figure at Ludwig's court. This appointment enabled Bucer to live in [[Nuremberg]], the most powerful city of the Empire, whose governing officials were strongly reformist. There he met many people who shared his viewpoint, including the humanist [[Willibald Pirckheimer]] and the future Nuremberg reformer [[Andreas Osiander]]. In September 1521, Bucer accepted Sickingen's offer of the position of pastor at [[Landstuhl]], where Sickingen had a castle, and Bucer moved to the town in May 1522. In summer 1522, he met and married Elisabeth Silbereisen, a former nun. | ||
Sickingen also offered to pay for Bucer to study in Wittenberg. On his way, Bucer stopped in the town of [[Wissembourg]], whose leading reformer, Heinrich Motherer, asked him to become his chaplain. Bucer agreed to interrupt his journey and went to work immediately, preaching daily sermons in which he attacked traditional church practices and monastic orders. On the basis of his belief that the Bible was the sole source for knowledge to attain salvation (''[[sola scriptura]]''), he preached that the Mass should not be considered as the recrucifying of Christ, but rather the reception of God's gift of salvation through Christ. He accused the monks of creating additional rules above what is contained in the Bible. He summarised his convictions in six theses, and called for a public disputation. His opponents, the local [[Franciscan]]s and Dominicans, ignored him, but his sermons incited the townspeople to threaten the town's monasteries. The bishop of [[Speyer]] reacted by [[Excommunication|excommunicating]] Bucer, and although the town council continued to support him, events beyond Wissembourg left Bucer in danger. His leading benefactor, Franz von Sickingen, was defeated and killed during the [[Knights' War]], and Ulrich von Hutten became a fugitive. The Wissembourg council urged Bucer and Motherer to leave, and on 13 May 1523 they fled to nearby Strasbourg. | Sickingen also offered to pay for Bucer to study in Wittenberg. On his way, Bucer stopped in the town of [[Wissembourg]], whose leading reformer, Heinrich Motherer, asked him to become his chaplain. Bucer agreed to interrupt his journey and went to work immediately, preaching daily sermons in which he attacked traditional church practices and monastic orders. On the basis of his belief that the Bible was the sole source for knowledge to attain salvation (''[[sola scriptura]]''), he preached that the Mass should not be considered as the recrucifying of Christ, but rather the reception of God's gift of salvation through Christ. He accused the monks of creating additional rules above what is contained in the Bible. He summarised his convictions in six theses, and called for a public disputation. His opponents, the local [[Franciscan]]s and Dominicans, ignored him, but his sermons incited the townspeople to threaten the town's monasteries. The bishop of [[Speyer]] reacted by [[Excommunication|excommunicating]] Bucer, and although the town council continued to support him, events beyond Wissembourg left Bucer in danger. His leading benefactor, Franz von Sickingen, was defeated and killed during the [[Knights' War]], and Ulrich von Hutten became a fugitive. The Wissembourg council urged Bucer and Motherer to leave, and on 13 May 1523 they fled to nearby Strasbourg. | ||
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The hostility reached a boiling point when Conrad Treger, the [[Provincial superior|prior provincial]] of the [[Augustinians]], denounced the reformist preachers and the [[Bourgeoisie|burghers]] of Strasbourg as heretics. On 5 September 1524, angry mobs broke into the monasteries, looting and destroying [[religious images]]. Many opponents of the Reformation were arrested, including Treger. After the council requested an official statement from the reformers, Bucer drafted twelve articles summarising the teachings of the Reformation, including [[justification by faith]] (''sola fide''). He rejected the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] and [[Catholic]] concepts such as [[monastic vows]], [[veneration]] of saints, and [[purgatory]]. He refused to recognise the authority of the pope and instead emphasised obedience to the government. Treger was released on 12 October and left Strasbourg. With his departure, overt opposition to the Reformation ended in the city. | The hostility reached a boiling point when Conrad Treger, the [[Provincial superior|prior provincial]] of the [[Augustinians]], denounced the reformist preachers and the [[Bourgeoisie|burghers]] of Strasbourg as heretics. On 5 September 1524, angry mobs broke into the monasteries, looting and destroying [[religious images]]. Many opponents of the Reformation were arrested, including Treger. After the council requested an official statement from the reformers, Bucer drafted twelve articles summarising the teachings of the Reformation, including [[justification by faith]] (''sola fide''). He rejected the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] and [[Catholic]] concepts such as [[monastic vows]], [[veneration]] of saints, and [[purgatory]]. He refused to recognise the authority of the pope and instead emphasised obedience to the government. Treger was released on 12 October and left Strasbourg. With his departure, overt opposition to the Reformation ended in the city. | ||
The reformers' first goal was the creation of a new [[Church service|order of service]]—at this time the Strasbourg reformers followed Zwingli's liturgy. They presented proposals for a common order of service for the entire Reformation movement to the theologians of Wittenberg and Zürich. In Bucer's book ''Grund und Ursach'' (Basis and Cause), published in December 1524, he attacked the idea of the Mass as a sacrifice, and rejected [[Vestment|liturgical garments]], the [[Altar (Catholicism)|altar]], and certain forms of ritual. It was also this publication that acknowledged the introduction of congregational German hymn singing in the city. | The reformers' first goal was the creation of a new [[Church service|order of service]]—at this time the Strasbourg reformers followed Zwingli's liturgy. They presented proposals for a common order of service for the entire Reformation movement to the theologians of Wittenberg and Zürich. In Bucer's book ''Grund und Ursach'' (Basis and Cause), published in December 1524, he attacked the idea of the Mass as a sacrifice, and rejected [[Vestment|liturgical garments]], the [[Altar (Catholicism)|altar]], and certain forms of ritual. It was also this publication that acknowledged the introduction of congregational German hymn singing in the city. (Only his preface to the 1541 ''Gesangbuch'' surpassed it in terms of musical significance.) By May 1525, liturgical reforms had been implemented in Strasbourg's parish churches, but the city council decided to allow masses to continue in the [[Strasbourg Cathedral|cathedral]] and in the [[collegiate church]]es [[St. Thomas, Strasbourg|St. Thomas]], [[Saint-Pierre-le-Jeune Protestant Church|Young St Peter]], and [[Old Saint Peter's Church, Strasbourg|Old St Peter]]. | ||
==Dialogue with Luther and Zwingli (1524–1530)== | ==Dialogue with Luther and Zwingli (1524–1530)== | ||
Beginning in 1524, Bucer concentrated on the main issue dividing leading reformers, the [[eucharist]]. In this dispute, he attempted to mediate between Martin Luther and Huldrych Zwingli. The two theologians disagreed on whether the body and blood of Christ were physically present within the elements of bread and wine during the celebration of the Lord's Supper. Luther believed in a corporeal or physical [[real presence]] of Christ; and Zwingli believed Christ's body and blood were made [[Spiritual real presence|present by the Holy Spirit]]. By late 1524, Bucer had abandoned the idea of corporeal real presence and, after some [[exegesis|exegetical]] studies, accepted Zwingli's interpretation. However, he did not believe the Reformation depended on either position but on faith in Christ, other matters being secondary. In this respect he differed from Zwingli. | Beginning in 1524, Bucer concentrated on the main issue dividing leading reformers, the [[eucharist]]. In this dispute, he attempted to mediate between Martin Luther and Huldrych Zwingli. The two theologians disagreed on whether the body and blood of Christ were physically present within the elements of bread and wine during the celebration of the Lord's Supper. Luther believed in a corporeal or physical [[real presence]] of Christ; and Zwingli believed Christ's body and blood were made [[Spiritual real presence|present by the Holy Spirit]]. By late 1524, Bucer had abandoned the idea of corporeal real presence and, after some [[exegesis|exegetical]] studies, accepted Zwingli's interpretation. However, he did not believe the Reformation depended on either position but on faith in Christ, other matters being secondary. In this respect he differed from Zwingli. | ||
[[Image:MartinLuther UlrichZwingli.JPG|thumb|300px|right|Bucer tried to mediate between [[Martin Luther]] (left) and [[Huldrych Zwingli]] (right) on doctrinal matters.]] | [[Image:MartinLuther UlrichZwingli.JPG|thumb|300px|right|Bucer tried to mediate between [[Martin Luther]] (left) and [[Huldrych Zwingli]] (right) on doctrinal matters.]] | ||
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While these events unfolded, the reformers in Strasbourg were slowly making progress. Their pressure on the council to ban all masses finally succeeded. On 20 February 1529, Strasbourg openly joined the Reformation when the practice of the mass was officially suspended. In its place, two preaching services (''Predigtgottesdienste'') per Sunday were held in all the parish churches. On 5 January 1530, when Strasbourg joined the alliance of Swiss cities, the ''Christliches Burgrecht'' [''Christian Confederation''] (in German), the council systematically removed images and side altars from the churches. Bucer had at first tolerated images in places of worship as long as they were not venerated. He later came to believe they should be removed because of their potential for abuse, and he advocated in a treatise for their orderly removal. First the authority of the magistrates should be obtained, and then the people instructed on abandoning devotion to images. | While these events unfolded, the reformers in Strasbourg were slowly making progress. Their pressure on the council to ban all masses finally succeeded. On 20 February 1529, Strasbourg openly joined the Reformation when the practice of the mass was officially suspended. In its place, two preaching services (''Predigtgottesdienste'') per Sunday were held in all the parish churches. On 5 January 1530, when Strasbourg joined the alliance of Swiss cities, the ''Christliches Burgrecht'' [''Christian Confederation''] (in German), the council systematically removed images and side altars from the churches. Bucer had at first tolerated images in places of worship as long as they were not venerated. He later came to believe they should be removed because of their potential for abuse, and he advocated in a treatise for their orderly removal. First the authority of the magistrates should be obtained, and then the people instructed on abandoning devotion to images. | ||
Bucer's priority in Strasbourg was to instill moral discipline in the church. To this end, special wardens (''Kirchenpfleger''), chosen from among the laity, were assigned to each congregation to supervise both doctrine and practice. His concerns were motivated by the effects of a rapidly rising refugee population, attracted by Strasbourg's tolerant asylum policies. Influxes of refugees, particularly after 1528, had brought a series of revolutionary preachers into Strasbourg. These men were inspired by a variety of [[Apocalypse|apocalyptic]] and mystical doctrines, and in some cases by hostility towards the social order and the notion of an official church. Significant numbers of refugees were [[Anabaptism|Anabaptists]] and spiritualists, such as the followers of [[Melchior Hoffman]], [[Caspar Schwenckfeld]], and [[Clemens Ziegler]]. Bucer personally took responsibility for attacking these and other popular preachers to minimize their influence and secure their expulsion and that of their followers. On 30 November 1532, the pastors and wardens of the church petitioned the council to enforce ethical standards, officially sanction the reformed faith, and refute the "sectarian" doctrines. | Bucer's priority in Strasbourg was to instill moral discipline in the church. To this end, special wardens (''Kirchenpfleger''), chosen from among the laity, were assigned to each congregation to supervise both doctrine and practice. His concerns were motivated by the effects of a rapidly rising refugee population, attracted by Strasbourg's tolerant asylum policies. Influxes of refugees, particularly after 1528, had brought a series of revolutionary preachers into Strasbourg. These men were inspired by a variety of [[Apocalypse|apocalyptic]] and mystical doctrines, and in some cases by hostility towards the social order and the notion of an official church. Significant numbers of refugees were [[Anabaptism|Anabaptists]] and spiritualists, such as the followers of [[Melchior Hoffman]], [[Caspar Schwenckfeld]], and [[Clemens Ziegler]]. Bucer personally took responsibility for attacking these and other popular preachers to minimize their influence and secure their expulsion and that of their followers. On 30 November 1532, the pastors and wardens of the church petitioned the council to enforce ethical standards, officially sanction the reformed faith, and refute the "sectarian" doctrines. The ruling authorities, who had allowed sectarian congregations to thrive among the refugees and lower orders, would only expel the obvious troublemakers. Bucer insisted that the council urgently take control of all Christian worship in the city for the common good. | ||
In response to the petition, the council set up a commission that proposed a city [[synod]]. For this gathering, Bucer provided a draft document of sixteen articles on church doctrine. The synod convened on 3 June 1533 at the [[Sainte-Madeleine Church, Strasbourg|Church of the Penitent Magdalens]] to debate Bucer's text, eventually accepting it in full. | In response to the petition, the council set up a commission that proposed a city [[synod]]. For this gathering, Bucer provided a draft document of sixteen articles on church doctrine. The synod convened on 3 June 1533 at the [[Sainte-Madeleine Church, Strasbourg|Church of the Penitent Magdalens]] to debate Bucer's text, eventually accepting it in full. Sectarian leaders were brought before the synod and questioned by Bucer. Ziegler was dismissed and allowed to stay in Strasbourg; Hoffmann was imprisoned as a danger to the state; and Schwenckfeld left Strasbourg of his own accord. | ||
Following the synod, the city council dragged its heels for several months. The synod commission, which included Bucer and Capito, decided to take the initiative and produced a draft ordinance for the regulation of the church. It proposed that the council assume almost complete control of the church, with responsibility for supervising doctrine, appointing church wardens, and maintaining moral standards. Still the council delayed, driving the pastors to the brink of resignation. Only when Hoffman's followers seized power in Münster, in the [[Münster Rebellion]], did the council act, fearing a similar incident in Strasbourg. On 4 March 1534, the council announced that Bucer's Tetrapolitan Confession and his sixteen articles on church doctrine were now official church statements of faith. All Anabaptists should either subscribe to these documents or leave the city. The decision established a new church in Strasbourg, with Capito declaring, "Bucer is the bishop of our church." | Following the synod, the city council dragged its heels for several months. The synod commission, which included Bucer and Capito, decided to take the initiative and produced a draft ordinance for the regulation of the church. It proposed that the council assume almost complete control of the church, with responsibility for supervising doctrine, appointing church wardens, and maintaining moral standards. Still the council delayed, driving the pastors to the brink of resignation. Only when Hoffman's followers seized power in Münster, in the [[Münster Rebellion]], did the council act, fearing a similar incident in Strasbourg. On 4 March 1534, the council announced that Bucer's Tetrapolitan Confession and his sixteen articles on church doctrine were now official church statements of faith. All Anabaptists should either subscribe to these documents or leave the city. The decision established a new church in Strasbourg, with Capito declaring, "Bucer is the bishop of our church." | ||
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304084444/http://www.bucer-forschungsstelle.theologie.uni-erlangen.de/ Bucer Research Office in Erlangen] | * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304084444/http://www.bucer-forschungsstelle.theologie.uni-erlangen.de/ Bucer Research Office in Erlangen] | ||
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080917015512/http://www.bucer.de/ueberuns/werwirsind/00000093d5075a609/index.html Short biography of Martin Bucer] | * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080917015512/http://www.bucer.de/ueberuns/werwirsind/00000093d5075a609/index.html Short biography of Martin Bucer] | ||
* [http://sites.google.com/site/bucerforfree/ Bucer For Free] (Links to the | * [http://sites.google.com/site/bucerforfree/ Bucer For Free] (Links to the digitized versions of the early editions of Bucer's works) | ||