Anabaptism: Difference between revisions

The name Anabaptist originated as an [[exonym]] meaning "one who baptizes again," referring to the practice of baptizing persons when they converted or declared their faith in Christ even if they had been baptized as infants, and many call themselves "Radical Reformers." Anabaptists require that baptismal candidates be able to make a confession of faith that is freely chosen and so rejected baptism of infants. The New Testament teaches to repent and then be baptized, and infants are not able to repent and turn away from sin to a life of following Jesus. The early members of this movement did not accept the name Anabaptist, claiming that infant baptism was not part of scripture and was therefore null and void. They said that baptizing self-confessed believers was their first true baptism:<blockquote>''"I have never taught Anabaptism. …But the right baptism of Christ, which is preceded by teaching and oral confession of faith, I teach, and say that infant baptism is a robbery of the right baptism of Christ."'' — [[Balthasar Hubmaier|Hubmaier, Balthasar]] (1526), ''[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Balthasar_H%C3%BCbmaier/Chapter_6#204 Short apology]''.</blockquote>Anabaptists were heavily persecuted by [[State religion|state churches]], both [[Magisterial Reformation|Magisterial Protestants]] and [[Roman Catholics]], beginning in the 16th century and continuing thereafter, largely because of their interpretation of scripture which put them at odds with official state church interpretations and local government control. Anabaptism was never established by any state and therefore never enjoyed any associated privileges. Most Anabaptists adhere to a [[Sermon on the Mount#Interpretation|literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount]] in Matthew 5–7, which teaches against hate, killing, violence, taking oaths, participating in use of force or any military actions, and against participation in civil government. Anabaptists view themselves as primarily citizens of the [[Kingdom of God (Christianity)|kingdom of God]], not of earthly governments. As committed followers of Jesus, they seek to pattern their life after his.

Some former groups who practiced rebaptism, now extinct, believed otherwise and complied with these requirements of civil society. They were thus technically Anabaptists, even though conservative Amish, Mennonites, Hutterites, and many historians consider them outside Anabaptism. [[Conrad Grebel]] wrote in a letter to [[Thomas Müntzer]] in 1524: "True Christian believers are sheep among wolves, sheep for the slaughter ... Neither do they use worldly sword or war, since all killing has ceased with them."

Anabaptists are considered to have begun with the [[Radical Reformation]] in the 16th century, but historians classify certain people and groups as their forerunners because of a similar approach to the [[Biblical hermeneutics|interpretation]] and application of the Bible. For instance, [[Petr Chelčický]], a 15th-century [[Bohemia]]n reformer, taught most of the beliefs considered integral to Anabaptist theology. Medieval antecedents may include the [[Brethren of the Common Life]], the [[Hussite]]s, Dutch Sacramentists, and some forms of [[monasticism]]. The [[Waldensians]] also represent a faith similar to the Anabaptists.{{Sfn | van Braght | 1950 | p = 277}}

* The believer must not swear oaths or refer disputes between believers to law-courts for resolution, in accordance with 1 Corinthians 6:1–11.

* The believer must not bear arms or offer forcible resistance to wrongdoers, nor wield the sword. No Christian has the jus gladii (the right of the sword). Matthew 5:39

* Civil government (i.e. "Caesar") belongs to the world. The believer belongs to God's kingdom so must not fill any office nor hold any rank under government, which is to be passively obeyed. John 18:36 Romans 13:1–7

* Sinners or unfaithful ones are to be excommunicated and excluded from the sacraments and from intercourse with believers unless they repent, according to 1 Corinthians 5:9–13 and Matthew 18:15 seq., but no force is to be used towards them.

On December 27, 1521, three "prophets" from [[Zwickau]] appeared in [[Wittenberg]] who were influenced by (and, in turn, influencing) [[Thomas Müntzer]], Thomas Dreschel, [[Nicholas Storch]], and Mark Thomas Stübner. They preached an apocalyptic, radical alternative to [[Lutheranism]]. Their preaching helped to stir the feelings concerning the social crisis which erupted in the [[German Peasants' War]] in southern Germany in 1525 as a revolt against feudal oppression.

The modern era of Anabaptist historiography arose with Roman Catholic scholar [[Carl Adolf Cornelius]]' publication of ''Die Geschichte des Münsterischen Aufruhrs (The History of the Münster Uprising)'' in 1855. Baptist historian [[Albert Henry Newman]], who [[Harold S. Bender]] said occupied "first position in the field of American Anabaptist historiography", made a major contribution with his ''A History of Anti-Pedobaptism'' (1897).

Some scholars (e.g. Harold S. Bender, William Estep, Robert Friedmann) consider the Anabaptist movement to have developed from the [[Swiss Brethren]] movement. They generally argue that Anabaptism had its origins in Zürich and that the Anabaptism of the Swiss Brethren was transmitted to southern Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, and northern Germany, where it developed into its various branches. The monogenesis theory usually rejects the Münsterites and other radicals from the category of true Anabaptists. In the monogenesis view the time of origin is January 21, 1525, when [[Conrad Grebel]] baptized [[George Blaurock]], and Blaurock in turn baptized several others immediately. These baptisms were the first "re-baptisms" known in the movement. This continues to be the most widely accepted date posited for the establishment of Anabaptism.

[[James M. Stayer]], {{Ill|Werner O. Packull|de}}, and [[Klaus Deppermann]] disputed the idea of a single origin of Anabaptists in a 1975 essay entitled "From Monogenesis to Polygenesis", suggesting that February 24, 1527, at Schleitheim is the proper date of the origin of Anabaptism. On this date the Swiss Brethren wrote a declaration of belief called the [[Schleitheim Confession]]. The authors of the essay note the agreement among previous Anabaptist historians on polygenesis, even when disputing the date for a single starting point: "Hillerbrand and Bender (like Holl and Troeltsch) were in agreement that there was a single dispersion of Anabaptism …, which certainly ran through Zurich. The only question was whether or not it went back further to Saxony."

After criticizing the standard polygenetic history, the authors found six groups in early Anabaptism which could be collapsed into three originating "points of departure": "South German Anabaptism, the Swiss Brethren, and the [[Melchiorites]]". According to their polygenesis theory, South German–Austrian Anabaptism "was a diluted form of [[Rhineland mysticism]]", Swiss Anabaptism "arose out of Reformed [[Congregationalist polity|congregationalism]]", and Dutch Anabaptism was formed by "Social unrest and the apocalyptic visions of [[Melchior Hoffman]]". As examples of how the Anabaptist movement was influenced from sources other than the Swiss Brethren movement, mention has been made of how [[Pilgram Marpeck]]'s XXX of 1542 was deeply influenced by the XXX of 1533 by Münster theologian [[Bernhard Rothmann]]. Hoffman influenced the [[Hutterites]] when they used his commentary on the [[Apocalypse]] shortly after he wrote it.

Others who have written in support of polygenesis include XXX and Walter Klaassen, who established links between Müntzer and [[Hans Hut]]. In another work, Gottfried Seebaß and Werner Packull show the influence of Müntzer on the formation of South German Anabaptism. Similarly, author Steven Ozment links Hut and [[Hans Denck]] with Müntzer, [[Sebastian Franck]], and others. Author Calvin Pater shows how [[Andreas Karlstadt]] influenced Swiss Anabaptism in various areas, including his view of Scripture, doctrine of the church, and views on baptism.

Several historians, including Thor Hall, Kenneth Davis, and Robert Kreider, have also noted the influence of [[Renaissance humanism|humanism]] on Radical Reformers in the three originating points of departure to account for how this brand of reform could develop independently from each other. Relatively recent research, begun in a more advanced and deliberate manner by Andrew P. Klager, also explores how the influence and a particular reading of the [[Church Fathers]] contributed to the development of distinctly Anabaptist beliefs and practices in separate regions of Europe in the early 16th century, including by [[Menno Simons]] in the Netherlands, Grebel in Switzerland, Müntzer in central Germany, Marpeck in the Tyrol, Peter Walpot in Moravia, and especially [[Balthasar Hubmaier]] in southern Germany, Switzerland, and Moravia.

[[Baptist successionism|Baptist successionists]] have at times pointed to 16th-century Anabaptists as part of an [[apostolic succession]] of churches ("church perpetuity") from the time of Christ. This view is held by some Baptists, some Mennonites, and some "true church" movements. The opponents of the Baptist successionism theory emphasize that these non-Catholic groups clearly differed from each other, that they held some heretical views, or that the groups had no connection with one another and had origins that were separate both in time and in place.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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The council ruled in this meeting that all who continued to refuse to baptize their infants should be expelled from Zurich if they did not have them baptized within one week. Since Grebel had refused to baptize his daughter Rachel, born on January 5, 1525, the council decision was personal to him and others who had not baptized their children. Thus, when 16 of the radicals met on January 21, the situation seemed particularly dark. The ''Hutterian Chronicle'' records the event:<blockquote>After prayer, George of the House of Jacob (George Blaurock) stood up and besought Conrad Grebel for God's sake to baptize him with the true Christian baptism upon his faith and knowledge. And when he knelt down with such a request and desire, Conrad baptized him, since at that time there was no ordained minister to perform such work.</blockquote>Afterwards Blaurock was baptized, and he in turn baptized others at the meeting. Even though some had rejected infant baptism before this date, these baptisms marked the first re-baptisms of those who had been baptized as infants and thus Swiss Anabaptism was born on that day.

Anabaptism appears to have come to [[County of Tyrol|Tyrol]] through the labors of Blaurock. Similar to the German Peasants' War, the Gaismair uprising set the stage by producing a hope for social justice. [[Michael Gaismair]] had tried to bring religious, political, and economical reform through a violent peasant uprising, but the movement was quashed. Although little evidence exists of a connection between Gaismair's uprising and Tyrolian Anabaptism, at least a few of the peasants involved in the uprising later became Anabaptists. The common link was the desire for a radical change in the prevailing social injustices. Disappointed with the failure of armed revolt, Anabaptist ideals of an alternative peaceful, just society probably resonated on the ears of the disappointed peasants.

Before Anabaptism was introduced to [[South Tyrol]], Protestant ideas had been propagated in the region by men such as Hans Vischer, a former Dominican. Some of those who participated in [[conventicle]]s where Protestant ideas were presented later became Anabaptists. The population in general seemed to have a favorable attitude towards reform, be it Protestant or Anabaptist. Blaurock appears to have preached itinerantly in the [[Puster Valley]] region in 1527, which most likely was the first introduction of Anabaptist ideas in the area. Another visit through the area in 1529 reinforced these ideas, but he was captured and burned at the stake in [[Klausen, South Tyrol|Klausen]] on September 6, 1529.

[[Jacob Hutter]] was one of the early converts in South Tyrol and later became a leader among the Hutterites, who received their name from him. Hutter made several trips between Moravia and Tyrol, and most of the Anabaptists in South Tyrol ended up emigrating to Moravia because of the fierce persecution unleashed by [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]]. In November 1535, Hutter was captured near Klausen and taken to [[Innsbruck]] where he was burned at the stake on February 25, 1536. By 1540 Anabaptism in South Tyrol was dying out, largely because of the emigration to Moravia of the converts because of incessant persecution.

Melchior Hoffman is credited with the introduction of Anabaptist ideas into the [[Low Countries]]. Hoffman had picked up Lutheran and Reformed ideas, but on April 23, 1530, he was "re-baptized" at [[Strasbourg]] and within two months had gone to [[Emden]] and baptized about 300 persons. For several years Hoffman preached in the Low Countries until he was arrested and imprisoned at Strasbourg, where he died about 10 years later. Hoffman's apocalyptic ideas were indirectly related to the [[Münster rebellion]], even though he was "of a different spirit".

Although Moravian Anabaptism was a transplant from other areas of Europe, [[Moravia]] soon became a center for the growing movement, largely because of the greater religious tolerance found there. Hans Hut was an early evangelist in the area, with one historian crediting him with baptizing more converts in two years than all the other Anabaptist evangelists put together. The coming of Balthasar Hübmaier to [[Nikolsburg]] was a definite boost for Anabaptist ideas to the area. With the great influx of religious refugees from all over Europe, many variations of Anabaptism appeared in Moravia, with Jarold Zeman documenting at least ten slightly different versions.

Jacob Wiedemann appeared at Nikolsburg and began to teach the pacifistic convictions of the Swiss Brethren, on which Hübmaier had been less authoritative. This would lead to a division between the XXX (sword-bearing) and the (staff-bearing). Wiedemann and those with him also promoted the practice of [[community of goods]]. With orders from the lords of [[Liechtenstein]] to leave Nikolsburg, about 200 withdrew to Moravia to form a community at [[Austerlitz, Netherlands|Austerlitz]].

Persecution in South Tyrol brought many refugees to Moravia, many of whom formed into communities that practised community of goods. Others came from [[Silesia]], Switzerland, German lands, and the Low Countries. With the passing of time and persecution, all the other versions of Anabaptism would die out in Moravia leaving only the Hutterites. Even the Hutterites would be dissipated by persecution, with a remnant fleeing to [[Transylvania]], then to Ukraine, and finally to North America in 1874.

However, there may have been confusion about what his baptism (at least some of the times it was done by making the sign of the [[Tau#Symbolism|Tau]] on the forehead) may have meant to the recipient. Some seem to have taken it as a sign by which they would escape the apocalyptical revenge of the Turks that Hut predicted. Hut even went so far as to predict a 1528 coming of the kingdom of God. When the prediction failed, some of his converts became discouraged and left the Anabaptist movement. The large congregation of Anabaptists at [[Augsburg]] fell apart (partly because of persecution) and those who stayed with Anabaptist ideas were absorbed into Swiss and Moravia Anabaptist congregations. Pilgram Marpeck was another notable leader in early South German Anabaptism who attempted to steer between the two extremes of Denck's inner Holiness and the legalistic standards of the other Anabaptists.<ref name="fireandwater">{{cite book|last1=Loewen|first1=Harry|last2=Nolt|first2=Steven|title=Through Fire & Water|date=1996|publisher=Herald Press|location=Scottdale, PA|pages=136–137}}</ref>

[[Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]] and [[Protestantism|Protestants]] alike persecuted the Anabaptists, resorting to torture and execution in attempts to curb the growth of the movement. The Protestants under Zwingli were the first to persecute the Anabaptists, with Manz becoming the first Anabaptist martyr in 1527. On May 20 or 21, 1527, Roman Catholic authorities executed [[Michael Sattler]]. King Ferdinand declared drowning (called the ''third baptism'') "the best antidote to Anabaptism". The [[Tudor period|Tudor]] regime, even the Protestant monarchs ([[Edward VI]] of England and [[Elizabeth I]] of England), persecuted Anabaptists as they were deemed too radical and therefore a danger to religious stability.

Anabaptism stands out among other groups of martyrs, in that Anabaptist martyrologies feature women more prominently, "making up thirty per cent of the martyr stories, compared to five to ten per cent in the other accounts."

Anabaptists view themselves as a separate branch of Christianity, not being a part of Catholicism, Protestantism, Oriental Orthodoxy or Eastern Orthodoxy. Anabaptist beliefs were codified in the Schleitheim Confession in 1527, which best represents the beliefs of the various denominations of Anabaptism (inclusive of Mennonites, Amish, Hutterites, Bruderhof, Schwarzenau Brethren, River Brethren and Apostolic Christians).

Anabaptist denominations, such as the Mennonites, teach "true faith entails a new birth, a spiritual regeneration by God's grace and power; 'believers' are those who have become the spiritual children of God." In Anabaptist theology, the pathway to salvation is "marked not by a forensic understanding of salvation by '[[Sola fide|faith alone]]', but by the entire process of repentance, self-denial, faith rebirth and obedience." Those who wish to tarry this path receive [[baptism]] after the [[Born again#Anabaptism|New Birth]]. Anabaptists heavily emphasize the importance of obedience in the salvation journey of a believer.

As a whole, Anabaptists emphasize an adherence to the beliefs of [[early Christianity]] and are thus distinguished by their keeping of practices that often include the observance of [[Maundy (foot washing)|feetwashing]], the [[Kiss of peace|holy kiss]], and [[Eucharist|communion]] (with these three ordinances being practiced collectively in the [[Agape feast|lovefeast]] in the Schwarzenau Brethren and River Brethren traditions), [[Head covering for Christian women|Christian headcovering]], [[nonconformity to the world]], [[nonresistance]], forgiveness, and sharing possessions, which in certain communities (as with the Bruderhof) takes on the form of [[communal living]].

''Further information on this topic can be found at: WIKIPEDIA''

Within the inspirationist wing of the Anabaptist movement, it was not unusual for [[Charismatic Christianity|charismatic]] manifestations to appear, such as dancing, falling under the power of the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]], "prophetic processions" (at Zurich in 1525, at Munster in 1534 and at Amsterdam in 1535), and [[speaking in tongues]]. In Germany some Anabaptists, "excited by mass hypnosis, experienced healings, glossolalia, contortions and other manifestations of a camp-meeting revival". The Anabaptist congregations that later developed into the Mennonite and Hutterite churches tended not to promote these manifestations but did not totally reject the miraculous.

Marpeck, for example, wrote against the exclusion of miracles: "Nor does Scripture assert this exclusion ... God has a free hand even in these last days." Referring to some who had been raised from the dead, he wrote: "Many of them have remained constant, enduring tortures inflicted by sword, rope, fire and water and suffering terrible, tyrannical, unheard-of deaths and martyrdoms, all of which they could easily have avoided by recantation. Moreover one also marvels when he sees how the faithful God (Who, after all, overflows with goodness) raises from the dead several such brothers and sisters of Christ after they were hanged, drowned, or killed in other ways. Even today, they are found alive and we can hear their own testimony ... Cannot everyone who sees, even the blind, say with a good conscience that such things are a powerful, unusual, and miraculous act of God? Those who would deny it must be hardened men." The ''Hutterite Chronicle'' and the ''Martyrs Mirror'' record several accounts of miraculous events, such as when a man named Martin prophesied while being led across a bridge to his execution in 1531: "this once yet the pious are led over this bridge, but no more hereafter". Just "a short time afterwards such a violent storm and flood came that the bridge was demolished".

The Anabaptists insisted upon the "free course" of the Holy Spirit in worship, yet still maintained it all must be judged according to the Scriptures. The Swiss Anabaptist document titled "Answer of Some Who Are Called (Ana-)Baptists&nbsp;– Why They Do Not Attend the Churches". One reason given for not attending the state churches was that these institutions forbade the congregation to exercise spiritual gifts according to "the Christian order as taught in the gospel or the Word of God in 1 Corinthians 14". "When such believers come together, 'Everyone of you (note every one) hath a psalm, hath a doctrine, hath a revelation, hath an interpretation', and so on. When someone comes to church and constantly hears only one person speaking, and all the listeners are silent, neither speaking nor prophesying, who can or will regard or confess the same to be a spiritual congregation, or confess according to 1 Corinthians 14 that God is dwelling and operating in them through His Holy Spirit with His gifts, impelling them one after another in the above-mentioned order of speaking and prophesying."

In 2022, there were over 2.12 million baptized Anabaptists in 85 countries. Over 36% are found in Africa, another 30% in North America, 20% in Asia and the Pacific, 9% in Latin America and the Caribbean, and less than 3% in Europe.

The major branches of Anabaptist Christianity today include the [[Amish]], [[Schwarzenau Brethren]], [[River Brethren]], [[Hutterites]], [[Mennonite]]s, [[Apostolic Christian Church]], and [[Bruderhof]]. Within many of these traditions (Amish, Mennonite, Schwarzenau Brethren and River Brethren) are three subsets: (1) [[Old Order Movement|Old Order Anabaptists]] (2) [[Conservative Anabaptists]] and (3) Mainline Anabaptists; for example, among Schwarzenau Brethren are the [[Old Order German Baptist Brethren]] (who use horse and buggy for transportation and do not use electricity), the [[Dunkard Brethren]] (who adhere to traditional theological beliefs and wear plain dress but use modern conveniences), and the [[Church of the Brethren]] (who are largely a mainline group where members are indistinguishable in dress from the general population).

The [[Bruderhof Communities]] were founded in Germany by [[Eberhard Arnold]] in 1920, establishing and organisationally joining the Hutterites in 1930. The group moved to England after the [[Nazi dissolution of the Bruderhof|Gestapo confiscated their property]] in 1933, and they subsequently moved to [[Paraguay]] in order to avoid military conscription, and after [[World War II]] they moved to the United States.

Groups which are derived from the Schwarzenau Brethren, often called German Baptists, while not directly descended from the 16th-century Radical Reformation, are considered Anabaptist because of their adherence to Anabaptist doctrine. The modern-day Brethren movement is a combination of Anabaptism and [[Radical Pietism]].

[[Neo-Anabaptism]] is a late 20th and early 21st century theological movement within American [[Evangelicalism|evangelical Christianity]] which draws inspiration from theologians who are located within the Anabaptist tradition but are ecclesiastically outside it. Neo-Anabaptists have been noted for their "[[low church]], counter-cultural, prophetic-stance-against-empire ethos" as well as for their focus on [[pacifism]], [[social justice]] and [[poverty]]. The works of Mennonite theologians [[Ron Sider]] and [[John Howard Yoder]] are frequently cited as having a strong influence on the movement.

Some similarities exist between Baptists and the Anabaptists, which is why some historians have advocated the view that [[General Baptists]] were influenced by Anabaptism. The similarities between these groups include baptism of believers only, religious freedom, similar perspectives on free will, predestination and original sin along with [[Congregationalist polity|congregationalism]]. It is almost certain that the earliest Baptist church led by [[John Smyth (English theologian)|John Smyth]] and [[Thomas Helwys]] interacted with the Mennonites and that Smyth borrowed ideas from Anabaptism. However, it has been debated if influences from Anabaptism ever found their way to the English General Baptists.

Those who held closer views with the Anabaptists switched to the Mennonite movement along with Smyth, while those who identified as Baptists did so under Helwys who disagreed with Smyth and the Mennonites on multiple issues, denying [[Celestial flesh|Melchiorite Christology]] and Anabaptist views of the civil magistrate. These English General Baptists may have had secondary influences from Anabaptism, although it is a matter of debate among historians. Despite the existing similarities between these two groups, the relationship between Baptists and Anabaptists was strained in 1624 when five existing Baptist churches of London issued a condemnation of the Anabaptists. The theory that Anabaptism influenced Baptist theology has been believed by [[Philip Schaff]], A.C. Underwood, and William R. Estep. Gourley wrote that among some contemporary Baptist scholars who emphasize the faith of the community over soul liberty, the Anabaptist influence theory is making a comeback.   

[[File:John-Smyth.png|thumb|172x172px|John Smyth]][[Puritan]]s of England and their Baptist branch arose independently, and although they may have been informed by Anabaptist theology, they clearly differentiate themselves from Anabaptists as seen in the [[Confession of Faith (1644)|London Confession of Faith 1644]], "Of those Churches which are commonly (though falsely) called Anabaptists". Moreover, Baptist historian Chris Traffanstedt maintains that Anabaptists share "some similarities with the early General Baptists, but overall these similarities are slight and not always relational. In the end, we must come to say that this group of Christians does not reflect the historical teaching of the Baptists".

There have been some discussions whether Anabaptist theology influenced [[Reformed Baptists|Particular Baptists]] in a limited sense. This theory proposes that there existed a native Anabaptist population in England that may have given rise to ideas held by Particular Baptist theologians. There exists some evidence of there being native English Anabaptists during this time, however many historians have rejected the idea that Anabaptist influences gave rise to the Particular Baptists, and there appears to be no concrete evidence of any Anabaptist influence in Particular Baptists.<ref name="Origins of the Particular Baptists">{{Cite web |title=Origins of the Particular Baptists |url=https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/themelios/article/origins-of-the-particular-baptists/ |access-date=2023-11-26 |website=The Gospel Coalition |language=en-US}}</ref> According to Barrington Raymond White, the relationship between the [[English Dissenters|English Separatists]] and the Radical Reformers was that of people coming to similar conclusions from their reading of the Bible based on the context of a similar situation.

In practice, Anabaptists have maintained a more literal obedience to the Sermon on the Mount, while Baptists generally do not require [[nonresistance]], non-swearing of oaths, and no remarriage if the first legitimate spouse is living. Traditional Anabaptists also require a head covering for women, modest apparel, practical separation from the world, and [[plain dress]], which most Baptists no longer require. However, some Anabaptists and General Baptists have improved their relations and sometimes have worked together.

*[[Freedom of religion]] – [[Freedom of thought|liberty of conscience]]

The Anabaptists were early promoters of a free church and freedom of religion.{{Refn | group= "lower-alpha" | The origins of religious freedom in the United States are traced back to the Anabaptists.<ref>{{Citation | last = Verduin | first = Leonard | title = That First Amendment and The Remnant | publisher = [[The Christian Hymnary]] | year = 1998 | isbn = 1-890050-17-2}}</ref>}} When it was introduced by the Anabaptists in the 15th and 16th centuries, religious freedom which was independent from the state was unthinkable to both clerical and governmental leaders. Religious liberty was equated with anarchy; [[Kropotkin]] traces the birth of anarchist thought in Europe to these early Anabaptist communities.

According to Estep:<blockquote>''Where men believe in the freedom of religion, supported by a guarantee of separation of church and state, they have entered into that heritage.  Where men have caught the Anabaptist vision of discipleship, they have become worthy of that heritage. Where corporate discipleship submits itself to the New Testament pattern of the church, the heir has then entered full possession of his legacy.''</blockquote>Anabaptist characters exist in popular culture, most notably [[Chaplain Tappman]] in [[Joseph Heller]]'s novel ''[[Catch-22]];'' James (Jacques) in [[Voltaire]]'s novella ''[[Candide]];'' [[Giacomo Meyerbeer]]'s opera {{lang|fr|[[Le prophète (opera)|Le prophète]]}} (1849); and the central character in the novel ''[[Q (novel)|Q]]'', by the collective known as "Luther Blissett".