Manicheaism
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Manicheaism is an extinct syncretic religion founded in the 3rd century and based on the teachings of the alleged prophet, Mani Hayya who grew up in a Jewish Christian sect in the Sasanian Persian Empire, before adopting his own teachings and living the life of a travelling preacher, travelling as far west as Syria and as far east as India.
The religion's main focus was on a dualistic cosmology, where the world is set as a spiritual battle between the forces of righteous light and the forces of unrighteous evil. This is similar to the cosmology of Zoroastrianism, however it is more extreme as it teaches that the light can be trapped within any material entity, and so every object has a conscience and can be harmed or helped by interacting with it.
Some early Christian theologians were originally Manicheans, including Augustine of Hippo. This has caused debate around how much of Augustine's theology may have been influenced by his former religious profession.
The faith claimed to be the spiritual successor of the teachings of Zarathustra, the Buddha and most of all Jesus Christ, each of who they recognised as the "Heralds" of the religion.
The religion changed a lot over time and was initially much more Christian, before becoming more influenced by Gnosticism, until being much more Buddhist.
History
Persian religion in the 3rd century
In the 3rd century, Persia was a centre of diverse religious expression. The dominant religion was Zoroastrianism and the Zoroastrian clergy held much influence in Sasanian politics, being closely tied to the royal court and playing a key role in legitimizing the rule of the Emperor, known as the Shahanshah. At this time, Zoroastrianism became more centralised and organised, with efforts to codify its scriptures and rituals.
In the east of the empire, Buddhism and Hinduism had begun to take hold, particularly in regions like Bactria and along the Silk Road trade routes. Buddhist monasteries and stupas were established, serving not only as religious centres but also as hubs of cultural and intellectual exchange. Hindu influences, while less widespread, were present in certain eastern provinces, brought in through trade and interactions with the Indian subcontinent.
Other polytheistic folk traditions existed, many of them following a specific figure in the Persian pagan pantheon, such as Mithra, the god of covenants and the sun. These traditions were often localized and varied widely across the empire, reflecting regional customs and beliefs that predated the rise of Zoroastrianism. Although not officially endorsed, such practices persisted among rural communities.
The 1st and 2nd centuries had also seen the rise of smaller movements based around the teaching of Jesus. Unlike in the west, these movements were not well organised and often held to unorthodox views about the Trinity and the Law of Moses. The two biggest Christian sects in Persia during this period were the Ebionites and the Elkasaites, both Jewish Christian factions who believed that the law of Moses continued to apply despite the coming of the Messiah. Both rejected the Bible and the Trinity, however the Ebionites rejected the divinity of Jesus, whilst the Elkasaites believed that Jesus was God, but was subordinate to the Father (see subordinationism).
The Prophet Mani
Mani, later known as Mani Hayya (which was later latinised to Manicheaus), was born in an Elkasaite baptist community in Mardinu around the year 216 CE.
He began to receive visions at the age of 12 from a being described as the "Heavenly Twin", possibly a reference to the Apostle Thomas. This being told him that his family's sect had twisted the gospel and that he has been chosen to restore it. At age 24, he left his father and the Elkasites to pursue education in spiritual matters.
It is speculated that he may have been exposed to the writings of Paul, which were denied by both of the dominant Jewish Christian sects in Persia at the time as in all the writings ascribed to him, he introduces himself as "Mani, an Apostle of Jesus Christ".
Mani travelled to India and became educated in the teachings of Buddhism, before returning to Persia and studying Zoroastrianism. Mani then syncretised these teachings with his own Christian faith to create Manicheaism.
Returning to Persia in 242 CE, Mani presented his teachings to Emperor Shapur I. To gain the monarch's attention, Mani composed the Shabuhragan, his only work written in Middle Persian, dedicating it to Shapur. This text outlined his dualistic cosmology, blending elements of Christianity, Buddhism, and Zoroastrianism into a universal doctrine. Although Shapur I did not convert to Manicheaism and remained loyal to Zoroastrianism, he was intrigued by Mani's ideas and allowed him to become part of his court.
Mani’s charisma and reputed miraculous abilities played a significant role in his influence. Accounts credit him with performing feats such as levitation, teleportation, and healing, which helped attract followers, particularly among Persia's elite. Additionally, Mani was renowned for his artistic skills, particularly as a painter, and used visual art to communicate his teachings, reportedly illustrating his texts to make them more accessible.
After Shapur's death, and the short rule and death of his successor, Emperor Bahram I took power. Bahram, influenced by the staunchly Zoroastrian reformer Kartir, viewed Mani as a heretic and began a campaign of persecution against the Manicheans. Mani was imprisoned under Bahram's orders, and he died within a month, in 274 CE, while still in custody. According to Manichean sources, Mani spent his final days offering comfort to his disciples, teaching that his death was merely the return of his soul to the realm of light.
A biography of him, written by his later followers, was discovered in Egypt in 1969 and is known as the Cologne Mani Codex. It has been dated to the 5th century. [1]
The 3rd, 4th and 5th centuries
After Mani's death in 274 CE, his followers ensured the survival of his teachings through a well-organized religious hierarchy and the distribution of his texts. Manicheaism spread quickly along the Silk Road, reaching regions as diverse as Rome, Central Asia, India, and China. Its universal message appealed to a wide audience, particularly merchants and intellectuals.
In the Roman Empire, Manicheaism faced persecution as it was deemed heretical by both pagan and Christian authorities. By the late 4th century, Christian emperors such as Theodosius I issued harsh edicts against Manicheans, leading to their suppression in the West. Despite this, pockets of Manichean communities survived, particularly in the eastern provinces and among diaspora groups.
In Persia, this doctrine faced similar opposition from Zoroastrian leaders who viewed it as a threat to their dominance. However, Manicheism continued to thrive in Central Asia and China, where it adapted to local customs and gained support among certain communities. By the 5th century, the religion was declining in the West but remained influential in the East, particularly along the Silk Road.
The 6th and 7th centuries
In the 6th century, Manicheaism continued to thrive in Arabia, Central Asia and China, where it adapted to local cultures and enjoyed periods of tolerance. The faith spread along the Silk Road, influencing communities in regions like Turkic Central Asia and Eastern China. Despite harsh persecution in the Roman Empire and Persia, Manicheans in the East maintained their communities and practices.
By the 7th century, the rise of Islam in Persia and the Arab conquest marked a significant decline for Manicheaism in the Middle East, as it was ruthlessly persecuted as a rival to Islamic monotheism. In China, however, Manichaeism continued to find support, particularly during the early Tang Dynasty, before gradually fading out. By the end of the century, the religion was largely confined to the East, struggling to survive amidst new religious and political landscapes.
The end of Manicheaism
By the 8th century, Manicheaism was struggling to expand and faced increasing challenges in maintaining its influence. While there were still some significant communities in Mongolia and parts of Central Asia, the rise of Islam in the West and the dominance of local religions in the East, like Tengriism, began to overshadow it. These factors, combined with the decline of the Silk Road as a major cultural conduit, led to a steady erosion of Manichean communities.
By the 11th century, Tengriism, the traditional Mongolian pagan religion, had largely eclipsed Manicheaism, especially in regions like Mongolia where the religion had once flourished. Manichaean influence waned as local religious practices gained prominence, and by this time, the religion had become a small, isolated movement with little influence in the broader religious landscape of Asia.
Today the last Manichean Church is used as a Buddhist temple in Ca'on, China.
Theology
Cosmology
Manichean cosmology taught that the highest god, referred to as the Beneficial Father, created two primary beings as part of the creation of the universe. The first was the Original Man, a unified soul representing all of humanity. The second was the Mother of Wisdom, a divine figure representing knowledge and the nurturing force of the cosmos. These two beings played key roles in the Manichaean myth of creation, as the Original Man was divided into parts, and through this process, human souls were scattered into the material world.
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At the same time, the evil figure in Manicheaism, known as the Prince of Darkness, had attempted to corrupt the material world and so covered it in darkness, trapping the parts of Original Man in every part of the physical realm. This contributes to Manichean myths and visions of inanimate objects such as vegetables and palm trees talking. In the Cologne Mani Codex, a member of Mani's family is cutting down a palm tree when it cries out to him saying, "Are you not righteous? Are you not pure? If you save me in this instant, you will not die with the man who is trying to kill me."[2]
Theism
Manicheaism is generally viewed as a monotheistic religion, as it centres around the worship of a single highest deity, the Beneficial Father. However, its earliest texts also present a complex view of divinity that incorporates elements of dualism. In these texts, Jesus is often described as the incarnate form of the Beneficial Father, playing a central role in the religion's cosmology and salvation narrative.
Christology
In Manichean Christology, while the Beneficial Father remains the ultimate god, Jesus plays a crucial role as a divine mediator. He is seen as a figure who bridges the gap between the spiritual and material worlds. In this framework, Jesus is not merely a human teacher but a manifestation of the divine, sent to guide souls trapped in the physical world back to the realm of light and purity.
Additionally, Mani Hayya himself is sometimes identified as the Paraclete or Comforter mentioned in the Gospel of . This identification stems from Mani's claim of receiving divine revelations and his role as the final messenger of the truth, bringing the complete and restored message of God. In this sense, Mani is seen not only as a prophet but as a divine figure who fulfills the role of the Paraclete, offering spiritual guidance and helping to bring about the salvation of souls
Influences
Christianity
Early Manicheans identified themselves as Christians, and Manicheaism initially emerged from a Christian context. Mani Hayya viewed his teachings as a continuation and completion of the Christian message, believing that his version of the faith was a more complete revelation. He incorporated many Christian elements, including the figure of Jesus, whom he saw as the incarnate form of the Beneficial Father, a divine mediator between the spiritual and material realms. Early Manichaeans used Christian scriptures and symbols, and they respected the figure of Christ, interpreting his role within their dualistic framework of light versus darkness.
Buddhism
Buddhism also had a profound influence on Manicheans and the Buddha is viewed as one of the four heralds of the faith The Buddha is seen as a revelator of truth, guiding humanity toward spiritual enlightenment. The Buddha's teachings on overcoming suffering and attaining spiritual liberation from the material world resonate with the Manichean emphasis on escaping the bondage of darkness and returning to the realm of light.
Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism influenced Manicheaism through its dualistic view of good versus evil, with light representing goodness and darkness symbolizing corruption. Mani Hayya adopted Zoroastrian concepts of cosmic struggle and ascetic practices.
Gnosticism
Gnosticism heavily influenced Manicheaism, particularly in its emphasis on knowledge (gnosis) as the path to spiritual salvation. Both traditions share the belief that the material world is corrupt and that the soul must escape it through enlightenment. Manichaeism adopted Gnostic ideas of secret knowledge and the dualistic battle between light and darkness. However, unlike some Gnostic sects, Manicheaism maintained a more structured cosmology and monotheism.
Judaism
Manicheans incorporated Jewish terminology about the importance of law, covenant, and the battle between good and evil
Influence on Augustine of Hippo
Manicheaism had a significant influence on Augustine of Hippo during his early life. Before his conversion to Christianity, Augustine was a follower of Manicheaism for nearly a decade. He was drawn to its dualistic worldview, which offered a clear distinction between the forces of good and evil. The Manichaean belief that the material world was inherently corrupt resonated with Augustine's personal struggles with sin and desire.
However, Augustine eventually became disillusioned with Manicheaism due to its intellectual inconsistencies and its failure to provide a satisfactory explanation of evil. He rejected its teachings after encountering Christian theology, which emphasized the goodness of creation and the redemptive power of Christ. Despite his eventual break from Manichaeism, its influence is seen in Augustine’s early writings, especially in his exploration of the nature of evil and the problem of free will.[3]
